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THE  GETTY  RESEARCH  INSTITUTE  LIBRARY 
Halsted  VanderPoel  Campanian  Collection 


I 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2015 


https://archive.org/details/pompeiiitshistorOOdyer_0 


POMPEII. 


ITS  history;  BUILDINGS,  AND  ANTIQUITIES. 


AN  ACCOUNT  OF 

THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  CITY,  WITH  A  FULL  DESCRIPTION 
OF  THE  REMAINS,  AND  OF  THE  RECENT  EXCAVATIONS, 
AND  ALSO  AN  ITINERARY  FOR  VISITORS. 


EDITED  BY 

THOMAS  H.  DYER,  LL.D, 

OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ST.  ANDREWS. 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  NEARLY  THREE  HUNDRED  WOOD  ENGRAVINGS, 
A  LARGE  MAP,  AND  A  PLAN  OF  THE  FORUM. 


SECOND  EDITION. 


CHARLES 


NEW  Y  O 

SCRIBNER, 
1869. 


R  K  : 

WELFORD, 


&  CO. 


It 


Brt£  GETFY  CENTER 
LIBRARY 


CONTENTS. 


PAKT  L 

THE  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  OF  POMPEII. 

PAGK 

Preface  xv 

Introduction  1 

CHAPTER  L 

History  op  Vesuvius  10 

CHAPTER  IL 

Historical  Notice  of  Pompeii  29 

CHAPTER  IIL 

Position  op  Poiipeii — Its  General  Appearance — Roads,  Walls, 

Gates,  Streets,  &c.  55 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Origin  and  Use  of  Foruji — Architectural  Classification  of 
Buildings — Description  of  Forum  of  Pompeii  and  its 
Temples  91 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  remaining  Temples  op  Pompeh       ....  135 


vi 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PAGE 

Baths  EXCAVATED  IN  THE  YEARS  1824  AND  1858  .         .         ,  .153 

CHAPTER  Vn. 

The  Theatres  188 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Amphitheatre  215 


PAET  II. 
THE  PRIVATE  HOUSES  OF  POMPEII. 

CHAPTER  I. 

DoiviESTic  Architecture  oe  Italy  248 

CHAPTER  II. 

PoMPEiAN  Art  273 

CHAPTER  III. 

Private  Houses  301 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Houses  of  Pansa  and  Sallust  318 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  Via  Consularis,  or  Domitiana  344 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Art  of  Bae.ing — Fullonica  353 

CHAPTER  VII. 

House  of  the  Tragic  Poet — of  the  Great  and  Little  Foun- 
tains— OF  Apollo— the  Faun,  &c  366 


CONTENTS.  vii 
CHAPTER  VIII. 

PAGE 

Houses  of  Castor  and  Poi.i.ux— the  Centaur— Meleager,  &c.  .  400 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Survey  of  the  remainder  of  the  City — Inscriptions  and 

Graffiti — Casts  of  Bodies     ......  431 

CHAPTER  X. 

Suburban  Villa    .  480 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Tombs  499 

CHAPTER  XH. 

Domestic  Utensils  ,       .       .  532 

Itinerary  573 


ILLUSTEATIONS. 


ENGRAVINGS  ON  STEEL  AND  WOOD. 

PAGE 

Pompeii  restored      .        .        .        .        .To  face  the  Title 

.    Plan  of  the  Forum  96 

Mosaic  of  Battle  of  Issus  .        .        .       *.        .    ■    .       .  277 
Necklace  of  Amulets        .......  447 

View  of  the  Villa  of  M.  Arrius  Diomedes    ....  481 

Bronze  lamps  and  vases    .......  545 

Painting  oil  walls  of  Pantheon  ......  567 

Plan  of  excavated  portion  of  Pompeii       .        .        .  End, 


WOODCUTS. 

1.  Vignette  of  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum,  from  Mazois     .       .  1 

2.  Plan  of  the  Bay  of  Naples   30 

3.  Drawing  on  a  wall  in  the  Street  of  Mercury       ...  35 

4.  Section  of  the  walls  and  agger  of  Pompeii  ....  59 

5.  Interior  battlements  restored    ......  60 

6.  Walls  and  towers  from  without .        .        .        .        ,        .  61 

7.  Masonry  of  Pompeii — Isodomon  of  the  Greeks    ...  62 

8.  Greek  wall  resembling  that  of  Pompeii      .        .        .        .  ib. 

9.  Gate  of  Herculaneum  restored  ......  64 

10.  Plan  of  the  pavement  of  Pompeii      .....  70 

11.  Plan  of  a  stepping  stone  in  the  street,  with  biga  passing      .  71 

12.  Window  in  the  house  of  the  Tragic  Poet    ....  72 

13.  View  in  the  Street  of  IMercury  .        .        .        .        .  .73 

14.  Vignette  of  Mercury  with  a  purse     .        .        .       .  .75 

15.  A  steel-yard  .........  76 

16.  Steel-yard  called  Tmtina  Campana  .....  77 

17.  Librae,  or  Bilances  ........  78 

18.  Fac-simile  of  Inscription  on  the  walls  of  a  house  ...  79 

19.  Ditto,  on  an  album         .......  80 

20.  Ditto   ih. 

21.  View  of  a  sewer      ........  83 

22.  Manner  of  carrying  the  Amphora     .....  84 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  ix 

PAGE 

23.  Bas-relief  of  a  goat  over  a  milk  shop  .....  85 

24.  Section  of  a  public  fountain      ......  87 

25.  Jet  d'eau ;  from  an  Arabesque  painting      ....  88 

26.  Fountain  near  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum    ....  89 

27.  Bronze  cock  found  in  Capri      ......  90 

28.  Plan  showing  varieties  of  temples  and  intercolumniation      .  93 

29.  Bronze  figures  to  ornament  fountains .....  101 

30.  Painting  of  a  galley  in  the  Pantheon  .....  106 

31.  Ditto,  of  bread,  in  same  ......  109 

32.  Bronze  pastry  mould       .        .        .        .        .       .        .  ih, 

33.  Gold  ring  with  engraved  stone  .        .        .       •        .  .110 

34.  Painting  of  Cupids  making  bread      .        .        .        .  .111 

35.  Wall  paintings  iu  Temple  of  Augustus      .        .        .  .112 

36.  Ditto,  ditto  113 

37.  View  of  the  Temple  of  Mercury  114 

38.  Utensils  used  in  sacrificing       .       .        .        .        .  .116 

39.  Sacrificial  instruments  sculptured  on  altar  .        .        .  .117 

40.  Urn  for  warm  decoctions  .......  120 

41.  Section  of  the  same  ........  ^?> 

42.  View  of  Statue  of  Eumachia  and  false  door.       .       .  .122 

43.  Plan  of  columns  of  the  Basilica         .        .        .        .  .125 

44.  Mosaic  border  in  Temple  of  Venus    .        .        .        ,  .129 

45.  Terminal  figure  in  same  .......  130 

46.  Dwarfs,  from  a  painting,  ditto  ......  ^6. 

47.  Painting  of  Bacchus  and  Silcnus  in  priest  s  apartment .        .  131 

48.  Construction  of  arscostyle  portico  of  Forum         .        .        .  132 

49.  View  of  the  Forum  from  the  south     .....  133 

50.  Male  Centaur  and  Ba(^hante    ......  134 

51.  Bas-relief  of  warrior  and  biga  ......  135 

52.  View  of  the  Temple  of  Fortune  136 

53.  Bronze  helmet  found  at  Pompeii      .        .        .        .  .147 

54.  Greaves  worn  by  the  gladiators .       .        .        .        .        .    1 48 

55.  Female  Centaur  and  Bacchante        .        .        .       .  .153 

56.  Fac-simile  of  inscription  in  old  Baths        .        .        .  .154 

57.  Plan  of  the  old  Baths  157 

58.  Section  of  Apodytcrium  and  Frigidarium  ....  159 

59.  Frieze  of  the  Apodytcrium      ......  160 

60.  Transverse  section  of  the  Apodytcrium      .       .        .  .161 

61.  Chariot  race  of  Cupids  in  the  Frigidarium  ....  162 

62.  View  of  the  Tepidarium  163 

63.  Telamones  in  the  Tepidarium   .        .       .        .        .  .164 

64.  Brazier  in  ditto       .        .        .        .       .       .       .  .165 

65.  Bronze  seat  in  ditto  ........  166 

66.  Section  of  the  Caldarium  167 


X  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

67.  Part  of  the  ceiling  of  Caldarium  169 

68.  Ornament  of  the  Teioidarium    .        .        .        .        .  .170 

69.  Stucco  ornaments  in  ceiling  of  ditto  .....  171 

70.  Ornaments  in  the  Tepidarium  .        .        .        .        .  .172 

71.  Plan  of  Stabian  Baths     .        .        .        .        .        .  .175 

72.  Strigiles  179 

73.  View  of  west  side  of  Stabian  Baths  180 

71.  Vases  for  perfumes .       .       .       .       .       .       .  .187 

75.  Figure  with  a  mask  188 

76.  Comic  scene  from  a  painting  at  Pompeii    ....  190 

77.  Another  •        ,  ih- 

78.  Another  191 

79.  Plan  of  a  Eoman  theatre  .......  192 

80.  Masks,  dwarf  and  monkey,  from  a  painting.       .       .       .  195 

81.  Tragic  mask,  fi*om  the  Townley  Collection.        .       .  .196 

82.  Another,  from  the  same  197 

83.  Masks  from  an  ancient  ]\J  S.  of  Terence     .        .        .  .198 

84.  Tragic  and  grotesque  masks  ...... 

85.  Masked  figure  of  Silenus  199 

86.  Comic  scene  from  a  painting  at  Pompeii    ....  200 

87.  Tragic  scene,  ditto  201 

88.  Mosaic  of  a  Choragus  instructing  actors     ....  203 

89.  Plan  of  the  large  theatre  at  Pompeii  204 

90.  View  of  the  same  206 

91.  Flute-player,  fi*om  a  painting   ......  207 

92.  Stone  rings  for  masts  of  Velarium      .....  208 

93.  Plan  of  the  small  theatre  at  Pompeii .       .       .        .  .210 

94.  Bisellium,  or  chair  of  state       .       .  ^    .       .       .       .  211 

95.  View  of  the  small  theatre        .       .       .       .       .  .213 

96.  View  of  the  Amphitheatre  at  Pompeii .      ,       .       .       .  216 

97.  Gladiators,  from  a  painting  on  wall  of  arena        .       .       .  227 

98.  Bestiarius,  or  combatant  of  wild  beasts       ....  229 

99.  Bestiarii,  or  combatants  with  wild  beasts  ....  230 

100.  Bestiarius,  resembling  the  Spanish  matador        .        .        .  231 

101.  Equestrian  gladiators       .         ......  233 

102.  Gladiators  ;  a  Veles  and  a  Samnite  .....  234 

103.  Ditto,  Tlirax,  Mvrmillo,  Eetiarii,  and  Secutores  .        .        .  236 

104.  Ditto,  a  Veles  and  Samnite  237 

105.  Ditto,  Lanista,  Myrmillo,  and  Samnite       ....  238 

106.  Ditto,  Samnite  and  Myrmillo  ih. 

107.  Wild  boar  hunt  239 

108.  Bestiarius  and  boar         .......  ih. 

109.  Bestiarius  and  bull  .......  ?7). 

110.  Helmets  and  greaves  of  Gladiators  240 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  xi 

PAGE 

111.  Plan  of  the  Amphitheatre  at  Pompeii        ....  242 

112.  Bronze  hehnet  worn  by  a  gladiator    .....  243 

113.  Enriched  echinus  moulding      ......  245 

114.  Ionic  capital         .        .         ......  248 

115.  Cabin  of  the  aboriginal  Latins          .        .        .        .        ,  249 

116.  Dancing  Fauns,  from  painted  walls  of  Pompeii  .        .        .  258 

117.  Fragment  of  a  plan  of  Kome    ......  263 

118.  Ancient  bolt   264 

119.  Key  and  hinge   265 

120.  Door  handles         ........  z6. 

121.  Door  of  a  private  dwelling  restored    .....  266 

122.  Doric  capital         ........  272 

123.  Biga,  from  an  Arabesque         ......  273 

124.  Mosaic  picture  by  Dioscorides  ......  276 

125.  Scipio,  Masinissa,  and  Sophonisba     .....  292 

126.  A  female  painting  the  bearded  Bacchus     ....  294 

127.  Studio  of  an  ancient  painter     ......  295 

128.  Statuette  of  the  dancing  Faun          .....  296 

129.  Ditto  of  Silenus   297 

130.  Ditto  of  Narcissus   298 

131.  Curule  chair,,  from  a  Pompeian  picture      ....  300 

132.  Beehives  made  of  bronze          ......  301 

133.  Ground  plan  of  a  shop     .        ......  303 

134.  View  of  a  cook's  shop  restored          .....  304 

135.  Street  view  near  the  old  Baths         .....  305 

136.  Ground  plan  of  a  shop   306 

137.  Ground  plan  of  a  small  house   ......  308 

138.  Bed  and  table,  from  a  painting         .       •        .       .        .  309 

1 39.  Plan  of  a  Triclinium   310 

140.  Picture  of  a  domestic  supper     .        .        .        .        .  .311 

141.  Ground  plan  of  a  smjdl  house   ......  312 

142.  Painting  of  Circe  and  Ulysses  .        .       .        .        .  .313 

143.  Plan  of  house  of  Queen  Caroline       .....  315 

144.  Mercury,  from  a  painting  .        .        .        .       ,        ,  .317 

145.  Dancing  Faun   318 

146.  Plan  of  Pansa's  house      .......  319 

147.  View  of  entrance  of  ditto   323 

148.  Religious  painting  in  kitchen  of  ditto        ....  325 

149.  Kitchen  stove  in  ditto   320 

150.  A  fiat  ladle,  or  trua        .......  26. 

151.  Atrium  of  Pansa's  house         ......  327 

152.  Ground  plan  of  house  of  Sallust        .        .        .       .  .329 

153.  View  of  entrance  to  ditto         .       .        .       .        .  .331 

154.  Summer  Triclinium  in  garden  of  ditto       ....  336 


xii  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

155.  Venereum  in  house  of  SaUust    ......  339 

156.  Atrium  of  ditto   .341 

157.  Cornice  of  the  Impluvium  in  ditto     .....  342 

158.  Painting  of  the  manner  of  hanging  a  picture     .       .       .  343 

159.  Curule  seat   344 

160.  Female  figure  with  papyri   348 

161.  Figure  playing  the  harp   349 

162.  Figure  reading  a  roll  of  papyrus   ih. 

163.  Figm-e  from  housQ  of  female  dancers         ....  351 

164.  A  dancing  Faun   352 

165.  Bas-relief  of  a  mule  and  mill    ......  353 

166.  Section  of  a  mill   356 

167.  Painting  of  serpents  in  a  bakehouse          ....  358 

168.  Bread  discovered  in  Pompeii    ......  360 

169.  Painting  of  fullers  at  work   361 

170.  Carding  a  tunic,  from  the  FuUonica  .....  363 

171.  Clothes  press,  from  the  same     ......  364 

172.  Small  painting  in  Tragic  Poet's  house       ....  366 

173.  Ground  plan  of  island  containing  Tragic  Poet's  house,  the 

Fullonica,  and  Great  and  Small  Fountains      .       .       .  367 

174.  Mosaic  of  Cave  Canem     .......  368 

175.  Painting  of  Achilles  delivering  up  Briseis          .       .       .  372 

176.  Head  of  Achilles   373 

177.  Painted  wall  in  Tragic  Poet's  house   377 

178.  Female  and  Cupid  fishing       ......  378 

179.  The  Sacrifice  of  Iphigenia   379 

180.  Leda  and  Tyndareus   380 

181.  Painting  of  Centaurs   382 

182.  Atrium  of  Poet's  house  restored        .....  383 

183.  House  of  the  Great  Fountain    .        .       .       .        .        .  386 

184.  Cupid  milking  a  goat      .......  387 

185.  Farm  yard  scene   389 

186.  House  of  the  Faun   392 

187.  Acratus  on  a  panther      .......  394 

188.  Mosaic  of  doves   395 

189.  Atrium  of  house  of  Ceres         ......  397 

190.  Painting  of  Jupiter         .......  398 

191.  Painting  in  house  of  Poet       ......  399 

192.  Curricle  bar,  from  a  Pompeian  picture       ....  400 

193.  Eustic  work  and  cornices,  from  house  of  Castor  and  Pollux  .  401 

194.  Plan  of  house  of  Castor  and  Pollux          ....  403 

195.  Atrium  of  house  of  Quaestor     ......  405 

196.  Thetis  dipping  Achilles  in  tlie  Styx          .       .       .       .  409 

197.  Piscina  in  house  of  Castor  and  Pollux      .       .       .  .411 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XIU 


198.  Painting  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda 

199.  Ditto  of  Medea  and  her  children 

200.  Manner  of  filling  the  ami^thorse 

201.  Amphorae  .... 

202.  A  drinking  scene 

203.  Meleager  returned  from  hunting 

204.  Plan  of  house  of  the  Nereids 

205.  Fountain  and  table  in  ditto 

206.  Capital  in  ditto 

207.  Section  of  house  of  Nereids 

208.  Elevation  of  part  of  Street  of  Tombs 

209.  Helmet,  sword,  &c. 

210.  Bacchus,  from  a  painting 

211.  Doorway  in  Street  of  Abundance 

212.  Tools  found  in  house  of  Sculptor 

213.  Ground  plan  of  house  of  Joseph  II. 

214.  Atrium  of  house  of  Championnet 

215.  House  of  Holconius 

216.  Painting  of  Bacchus  and  Ariadne 

217.  House  of  Cornelius  Kufus 

218.  Painting  of  writing  tablet,  &c.,  in  ditto 

219.  House  of  Lucretius 

220.  Ground  plan  of  ditto 

221.  Painting  of  Hercules  drunk 

222.  View  of  House  of  the  Balcony 

223.  Piaster  casts  of  bodies 

224.  Portico  of  house  of  Diomedes 

225.  Ground  plan  of  ditto 

226.  Funeral  column 

227.  Ground  plan  of  Street  of  Tombs 

228.  Tomb  of  tlie  marble  door 

229.  Funeral  Triclinium 

230.  Tomb  of  Nsevoleia  Tyche 

231.  Bas-relief  of  ditto  . 

232.  Ditto,  ditto  . 

233.  Bisellium  on  tomb  of  Calventius 

234.  Tomb  of  Scaurus,  round  tomb,  and  tomb  of 

235.  Bas-relief  on  wall  of  circular  tomb 

236.  Section  of  round  tomb 

237.  Exedra  in  Street  of  Tombs 

238.  Gold  ring  .... 

239.  Elevation  of  Mamia's  tomb  restored 

240.  Money  bag  and  coins 

241.  Papyri  and  tabulae  .  • 


Calventius 


Xiv  ILLUSTEATIONS. 

PAGE 

242.  Tabulae,  calamus,  and  papyrus          .....  534 

243.  Tabulae,  stylus,  and  papyrus     ......  535 

244.  Tabulae  and  Calamus  ....... 

245.  Scrinium  and  capsa        .......  536 

246.  Calendar   538 

247.  A  bronze  lantern    ........  540 

248.  Section  of  ditto   541 

249.  Upright  of  ditto   542 

250.  Extinguisher         ........  ^6. 

251.  Candelabra     .........  544 

252.  Bronze  figure  inlaid  with  embletic  work    .       .       .       ,  547 

253.  Candelabrum   549 

254.  Moveable  tripod   550 

255.  Brazier   551 

256.  Kitchen  utensils     ........  26. 

257.  Brazier   552 

258.  Bronze  vase   553 

259.  Simpula   554 

260.  Kitchen  utensils  of  bronze        ......  ^6 

261.  Ditto,  ditto   555 

262.  Terra  cotta  vase     ........  26. 

263.  Ehyton,  or  drinking  cup   556 

264.  Grotesque  vases      ........  557 

265.  Glass  vases    .........  558 

266.  Clay  liquor-basket  and  glass  vessels          ....  559 

267.  Ornamental  drinking  glasses  ...... 

268.  Glass  vessels   564 

269.  Bronze  strainer      ........  ^6. 

270.  Draped  female  statue      .......  566 

271.  Figure  dressed  in  the  Tunico-pallium        ....  567 

272.  Tunico-palliimi  displayed        ......  568 

273.  Harp-player   569 

274.  Ditto  witii  the  plectrum   570 

275.  Earring   571 

276.  Ditto,  gold  pin,  and  ring   572 

277.  Combs   ih. 


PEEFACE. 


The  work  now  offered  to  tlie  reader  is  based  on  one  originally 
published  between  thirty  and  forty  years  ago  under  the 
superintendence  of  •the  Society  for  the  Diffusicn  of  Useful 
Knoioledge,  which  became  deservedly  popular,  and  has  been 
several  times  reprinted ;  but  it  was  never  re- edited,  although, 
in  the  long  period  of  time  that  has  elapsed  since  its  first 
publication,  considerable  progress  has  of  course  been  made 
in  the  excavations  at  Pompeii.  The  present  work  has 
therefore  been  undertaken  with  the  view  of  supplying  seme 
account  of  these  more  recent  excavations,  and  thus  rendering 
the  book  a  more  full  and  accurate  description  of  Pompeii  in 
its  present  state. 

For  this  purpose  much  new  matter  has  been  added,  previous 
descriptions  have  been  altered  and  enlarged,  and  new  names 
that  have  been  given  to  streets,  buildings,  &c.,  have  been 
inserted.  The  method  of  the  book  seemed  also  capable  of 
improvement  by  transposing  some  of  the  descriptions ;  and 
indeed  the  author  of  the  original  work  has  now  and  then 
indicated  where  this  might  be  done  with  advantage. 

The  necessary  additions  would  have  rendered  the  volume 
of  inconvenient  size  had  all  the  original  matter  been  retained. 


xvi 


PREFACE. 


Witli  a  view  to  avoid  this  inconvenience,  some  descriptions 
which  did  not  appear  to  be  much  connected  with  the  subject, 
such  as  those  of  the  remains  of  Greek  walls,  of  the  baths 
at  Eome,  of  the  origin  of  the  Greek  theatre,  &c.,  have  been 
omitted.  The  Editor  may  mention  that,  with  a  view  to 
bring  down  the  information  to  the  latest  moment,  he  fre- 
quently visited  Pompeii  during  a  residence  at  Naples  in. 
the  winter  of  1865-6,  and  studied  the  best  and  latest 
authorities  on  the  subject.  An  Itinerary  at  the  end  of  the 
volume  may  serve  to  render  it  a  guide  for  travellers,  as  well 
as  an  index  to  the  principal  objects.  It  may  be  added  that 
several  new  illustrations  have  been  given,  besides  a  new 
map  of  the  excavations,  reduced  from  the  Commendatore 
Fiorelli's  plan,  with  that  gentleman's  kind  permission. 

London,  March,  1867. 


PAET  I. 


THE  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  OF  POMPEII. 


Vignette  from  Alazois'  view  of  the  city  at  the  gate  of  Herculaneum 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  minute  studies  of  antiq^uaries  liave  been  a  very  favourite 
subject  of  ridicule  with  those  who  have  not  followed  tlieni — 
sometimes  with,  sometimes  without  reason.  In  this,  as  in 
every  other  pursuit,  men  are  apt  to  forget  the  value  of  the 
object  in  the  pleasure  of  the  chase,  and  rmi  down  some  incom- 
prehensible or  untenable  theory  about  some  matter  that  never 
was  and  never  will  be  of  importance,  with  a  zeal  and  intensity 
of  purpose  which  might  have  been  better  bestowed  upon  a 
better  end.  But  notwithstanding  the  many  jokes,  good  and 
bad,  deserved  and  undeserved,  which  have  been  levelled  at 
this  branch  of  learning,  it  is  one  in  wdiich  all  inquiring  minds 
(and  no  mind  that  is  not  inquiring  can  be  worth  much),  not 
entirely  engrossed  by  some  favourite  occupation,  will  feel  more 
or  less  of  interest.  If  we  could  look  into  the  future,  the  past 
would  probably  lose  much  of  its  importance  in  our  eyes  ;  and 

B 


2 


POMPEII. 


our  curiosity  would  be  much  more  strongly  excited  to  ascer- 
tain the  state  of  the  world  a  thousand  years  hence,  than  its 
state  a  thousand  years  ago.  Bat  this  power  is  denied  us  ; 
and  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  character  and  capabilities  of 
mankind  more  comj^rehensive  than  the  experience  of  a  single 
geueration  can  afford,  we  must  apply  to  the  retrospect  of  the 
past.  Not  that  this  curiosity  influences  none  but  those  who 
might  wish  or  be  expected  or  draw  profit  from  its  gratification  ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  seems  a  temper  natural,  in  greater  or  less 
degree,  to  all  alike,  reflecting  or  unreflecting.  It  is  that 
which  causes  us  to  look  with  pleasure  on  an  antiquated  town, 
to  grope  among  ruins,  even  where  there  is  evidently  nothing 
to  repay  us  for  the  dirt  and  trouble  of  the  search  ;  and  gene- 
rally to  invest  everything  entirely  out  of  date  with  a  value 
which  its  original  possessors  would  be  much  puzzled  to 
understand. 

But  time  Vv^orks  constantly,  as  well  as  slowly  ;  and  there- 
fore, however  antiquated  the  appearance,  and  however  old- 
fashioned  and  changeless  the  habits  of  any  place  or  people 
may  seem  to  be,  they  are  sure  to  present  a  very  imperfect 
type  of  what  they  were  even  a  single  century  ago.  We  have 
often  wished,  in  various  parts  of  England,  that  we  could 
recall  for  a  moment  the  ancient  aspecli  of  the  country ; 
reclothe  the  downs  of  Wiltshire  with  their  native  sward,  and 
see  them  studded  with  tumuli  and  Druid  temples,  free  and 
boundless  as  they  extended  a  thousand  years  ago,  before  the 
devastations  of  the  plough  and  Inclosure  Acts  ;  recall  the 
leafy  honours  of  Nottinghamshire  and  Yorkshire,  and  re- 
people  the  neighbourhood  of  Sheffield  and  the  Don  with  oaks 
instead  of  steam-engine  and  manufactory  chimneys ;  or  re- 
new the  decayed  splendour  of  those  magnificent  monasteries 
whose  ruins  still  strike  the  beholder  with  admiration.  If  the 
romantic  fictions  of  the  middle  ages  could  be  realised,  which 
tell  of  mirrors  framed  with  magic  art  to  represent  what  had 
formerly  passed,  or  was  passing,  in  distant  parts  of  the  earth, 
the  hapi^y  discoverer  might  soon  make  his  fortune  in  this  age 
of  exhibitions.  What  exhibition  could  be  found  more  inte- 
I'esting  than  a  camera-obscura,  which  should  reflect  past 
incidents  of  historical  or  private  interest,  and  recall,  with  the 
vividness  and  minuteness  of  life,  at  least  the  external  charac- 
teristics of  long  past  ages  ! 


INTRODUCTION. 


3 


Sucb  fancies  are  but  idle  speculations.  The  past  can  only 
be  recalled  by  the  imagination  worlcing  upon  such  details  as 
the  pen  or  the  pencil  of  contemporaries  may  have  preserved ; 
yet,  in  one  single  instance,  the  course  of  events  has  done 
more  to  preserve  a  living  picture  of^  former  age — one,  too, 
in  which  the  civilized  world  is  deeply  interested — than  we 
could  reasonably  have  hoped  for.  Deserted  places  are  usually 
too  much  dilapidated  to  convey  more  than  a  very  imperfect 
idea  of  the  minutiaG  of  their  arrangement,  or  of  the  manners 
of  their  former  occupiers :  places  which  have  been  preserved 
by  being  inhabited,  are,  of  necessity,  changed  more  or  less  to 
suit  the  changing  manners  of  those  who  tenant  them.  It  was, 
therefore,  matter  of  no  ordinary  interest  when  it  was  known 
that  a  buried  Eoman  city  had  been  discovered ;  a  city  over- 
whelmed and  scaled  up  in  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  and 
preserved  from  the  ravages  of  the  barbarian  conquerors  of 
Italy,  and  the  sacrilegious  alterations  and  pillagings  of 
modern  hands.  But  the  hopes  which  might  reasonably  have 
been  formed  uj)on  the  discovery  of  Herculaneum,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century,  were  frustrated  in  great  measure 
by  the  depth  and  hardness  of  the  volcanic  products  under 
which  that  city  was  buried.  The  process  of  clearing  it  was 
necessarily  one  of  excavation,  not  of  denudation  ;  and  to 
avoid  the  labour  of  raising  the  quarried  matter  to  the  surface, 
from  a  depth  of  70  or  80  feet,  former  excavations  have  been 
filled  up  Avith  the  rubbish  of  new  excavations,  and  now, 
besides  a  few  houses,  the  theatre  is  the  only  building  open  to 
inspection,  and  that  an  unsatisfactory  and  imperfect  inspec- 
tion by  torch-light.  Museums  have  been  profusely  enriched 
with  various  articles  of  use  or  luxury  discovered  at  Hercu- 
laneum, which  might  serve  to  illustrate  tlic  Latin  authors,  and 
throw  light  upon  the  private  life  of  Italy ;  but  no  compre- 
hensive view  could  be  obtained,  and  consequently  no  new 
idea  formed  of  the  disposition  and  appearance  of  a  Eoman 
city.  Fortunately,  the  disappointment  was  repaired  by  the 
discovery  of  Pompeii,  a  companion  city  overwhelmed  in  the 
great  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  A.  d.  79,  together  with  Hercu- 
laneum, and  destined  to  be  the  partner  of  its  disinterment  as 
well  as  its  burial.  There  was,  however,  this  difference  in 
their  fate — that,  owing  to  its  greater  distance  from  the 
volcano,  as  well  as  its  more  elevated  situation,  Pompeii, 


4 


POMPEII. 


was  not  reached  by  the  streams  of  lava  which  have  succes- 
sively flowed  over  Herculaneum,  and  elevated  the  surface  of  the 
earth  from  70  to  100  feet.  Pompeii  was  buried  by  a  shower 
of  ashes,  pumice,  and  stones,  forming  a  bed  of  variable  depth, 
but  seldom  excceeding^20  or  24  feet,  loose  and  friable  in 
texture,  and  therefore  easily  removed,  so  as  completely  to 
uncover  and  expose  the  subjacent  buildings. 

The  upper  stories  of  the  houses,  which  appear  to  have 
consisted  chiefly  of  wood,  were  either  bui-nt  by  the  red-hot 
stones  ejected  from  Vesuvius,  or  broken  down  by  the  weight 
of  matter  collected  on  their  roofs  and  floors.  With  this 
exce]3tion,  we  see  a  flourishing  city  in  the  very  state  in  which  it 
existed  nearly  eighteen  centuries  ago  : — the  buildings  as  they 
were  originally  designed,  not  altered  and  patched  to  meet  the 
exigencies  of  newer  fashions ;  the  paintings  undimmed  by  the 
leaden  touch  of  time  ;  household  fui-niture  left  in  the  con- 
fusion of  use  ;  articles,  even  of  intrinsic  value,  abandoned  in 
the  hurry  of  escape,  yet  safe  from  the  robber,  or  scattered 
about  as  they  fell  from  the  trembling  hand,  which  could  not 
pause  or  stoop  for  its  most  valuable  possessions  :  and,  in  some 
instances,  the  bones  of  the  inhabitants,  bearing  sad  testimony 
to  the  suddenness  and  completeness  of  the  calamity  which 
overwhelmed  them.  "  I  noticed,''  says  M.  Simond,  "  a  strik- 
ing memorial  of  this  mighty  interruption  in  the  Forum, 
opposite  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  A  new  altar  of  white 
marble,  exquisitely  beautiful,  and  apparently  just  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  sculptor,  had  been  erected  there ;  an  enclosure 
was  building  all  round ;  the  mortar,  just  dashed  against  the 
side  of  the  wall,  was  but  half  spread  out ;  you  saw  the  long 
sliding  stroke  of  the  trowel  about  to  return  and  obliterate 
its  own  track — but  it  never  did  return  :  the  hand  of  the  work- 
man was  suddenly  arrested,  and,  after  the  lapse  of  1800  years, 
the  whole  looks  so  fresh  and  new  that  you  would  almost 
swear  that  the  mason  v;as  only  gone  to  his  dinner,  and  about 
to  come  back  immediately  to  smooth  the  roughness." 

It  is  unnecessary  to  expatiate  upon  the  interest  of  these 
discoveries  ;  yet  notwithstanding  their  interest  the  subject 
has  been  hardly  accessible  to  the  English  reader.  The 
excavations  have  been  prosecuted  to  a  considerable  extent 
since  the  elegant  work  of  Sir  W.  Gell  was  published,  which 
describes  only  the  buildings,  leaving  untouched  one  interest- 


INTRODUCTION. 


5 


ing  brancli  of  inquiry  connected  with  tlie  numerous  articles 
whicli  have  been  found,  throwing  light  u[!on  the  private  life 
of  the  Italians  in  the  first  century.  There  are  foreign  works 
of  great  research  and  magnificence,  but  these,  from  their 
price,  are  only  accessible  to  a  very  small  class  of  readers  ; 
and  therefore  little  iias  been  generally  known  of  Pompeii, 
except  what  may  be  gathered  from  the  short  and  scattered 
notices  of  travellers.  This  work  is  intended  as  an  attempt 
to  supply  the  deficiency.  It  is  proposed,  first,  to  give  a 
detailed  account  of  the  ruins  as  they  now  exist,  together  with 
a  description  of  their  former  state,  as  far  as  it  can  be  made 
out ;  with  occasional  digressions  upon  points  connected  with 
the  history  or  antiquities  of  the  place,  and  notices  of  the  most 
curious  and  important  articles  which  have  been  discovered. 
The  first  part  will  contain  the  public  edifices,  so  far  ais  they 
have  yet  been  disinterred  :  the  second  will  be  devoted  to  the 
houses  and  private  habits  of  their  tenants. 

The  chief  authorities  which  have  been  consulted,  are — the 
great  work  of  M.  Mazois  on  Pompeii ;  the  '  Museo  Borbonico,' 
a  periodical  work  now  in  course  of  publication  at  Naples; 
Sir  W.  Gell's  '  Pompeiana  ;'  and  Donaldson's  '  Pompeii.'  We 
have  also  had  the  advantage  of  numerous  observations  made 
on  the  spot  by  Mr.  William  Clarke,  architect,  by  whom  the 
materials  for  this  work  have  been  collected  and  the  drawings 
made,  either  from  the  originals  or  from  plates  in  the  above 
works. 

For  the  use  of  such  readers  as  may  wish  to  enter  upon  a 
deeper  study  of  the  subject,  we  shall  here  add  a  list  of  the 
principal  books  that  may  be  consulted."* 

Among  these,  the  work  of  Mazois,  already  mentioned,  is 
one  of  the  first,  both  in  point  of  time  and  of  importance. 
Mazois  resided  at  Naples  during  the  years  1809,  1810,  and 
1811,  and  was  encouraged  and  assisted  in  his  researches  by 
Queen  Caroline,  the  wife  of  Murat,  who  took  a  great  interest 
in  Pompeii,  and  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  book.  Mazois 
died  in  1826,  before  he  had  finished  his  work,  which  was 
continued  by  Gau.     Its  title  is  Les  Huines  de  Pompei,  des- 

*  A  most  extraordinary  instance  of  book-mp.king  on  this  subject  was  the 
work  of  a  certain  Monsignor  Bayardi ;  in  which,  at  the  end  of  two  thick 
quartos,  Hercules  had  not  yet  arrived  at  the  Campi  Phlegrcei,  and  consequently 
the  foundation  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  had  not  been  laid. 


6 


POMPEII. 


sinees  et  mesurees  par  F}\  Mazois,  architede,  pendant  les  annees 
1809,  1810,  et  1811 :  4  vols,  large  folio,  Paris,  Didot,  1812— 
1838.  It  contains  nearly  200  plates,  and  embraces  tlie  results 
of  tlie  excavations  from  1757  to  1821. 

Sir  W.  Gell's  Pompeiana  consists  of  two  series,  each  of 
two  octavo  volumes,  of  wliicli  the  first  series  was  published 
at  London,  in  1824,  and  the  second  in  1830.  The  former 
contains  an  account  of  the  excavations  down  to  the  year  1819; 
\yhich  is  continued  in  the  latter,  It  has  many  illustrations, 
some  of  them  coloured. 

Donaldson's  Pompeii,  illustrated  idtli  Picturesque  Views, 
engraved  by  W.  B,  Cooke,  was  published  in  London  in  1827. 
2  vols,  large  fol. 

The  French  work  of  Breton,  Pompeia,  decrite  et  dessinee,  par 
Ernest  Breton,  2nd  edition,  Paris,  1855,  is  a  handsome  book, 
with  many  good  illustrations,  and  describes,  in  one  large  8vo. 
vol.,  at  a  moderate  price,  the  progress  of  the  excavations  till 
about  the  last  ten  or  tw^elve  years. 

A  more  elaborate  work  than  this,  and  more  accurate  in 
j)omt  of  scholarship,  is  that  of  Overbeck,  Pompeji,  in  seinen 
Gehduden,  Alterthumern  und  KunsticerJcen,  filr  Kunst-  und 
Alterthims-freunde  dargestelit.  Leipsic,  Engelmann,  Over- 
beck  published  his  first  edition  in  1856,  without  having 
visited  Pompeii,  and  the  book  consequently  contained  many 
errors  and  imperfections.  These,  however,  have  been  reme- 
died in  a  second  edition,  the  fruits  of  a  visit  to  Pompeii, 
to  be  completed  in  the  present  year,  and  consisting  of  two 
volumes,  illustrated  with  numerous  cuts.  The  first  volume 
contains  the  history  and  topography  of  the  city,  with  an 
account  of  the  buildings  ;  the  second  is  devoted  to  Pompeian 
art.  Overbeck's  book  is,  for  its  compass,  undoubtedly  the 
fullest  and  most  accurate  yet  published  ;  though  the  desire 
to  be  original,  the  besetting  sin  of  most  German  writers, 
leads  him  now  and  then  into  some  crotchety  theories.  The 
volume  published  contains  no  account  of  the  tombs ;  an  omis- 
sion which  will  probably  be  supplied  in  the  second  volume. 

The  handsomest  work  on  Pompeii  is  that  of  Fausto  and 
Felice  Niccolini,  now  publishing  in  numbers,  entitled,  Le  Case 
ed  i  Monumenti  di  Pompei,  disegnati  e  descritti,  fol.,  Napoli, 
1864;  but  its  price  will  place  it  beyond  the  reach  of  most 
readers.     It  contains  beautifully  coloured  plates,  besides 


INTRODUCTION. 


7 


ground-plans,  cuts,  &c.,  with  descriptive  letter-press.  Tliirty- 
two  numbers  are  already  published,  at  15  francs  each. 

To  those  who  are  studying  Pompeii  thoroughly  and 
historically,  the  work  of  the  Commendatore  Fiorelli,  the 
present  able  director  of  the  excavations  and  of  the  Museum 
of  Naples,  is  indispensable.  It  is  entitled  Pomjoeianarum 
Antiquitatum  Historia,  and  contains,  in  two  8vo.  vols.,  e.ich  of 
three  Fasciculi,  the  records  of  the  excavations,  from  their 
commencement  in  1748  down  to  1860,  collected  from  the 
journals  of  the  directors.  These  are  printed  verbatim  ;  not  a 
record  of  the  discovery  of  a  nail,  or  bolt,  or  fragment  of 
statuary,  or  earthenware,  is  omitted ;  so  that  the  reader  will 
hnd  the  materials  for  a  histor}^  rather  than  the  history  itself, 
which  the  somewhat  magnificent  title  of  the  book  may  have 
led  him  to  exjDcct.  To  the  archaeological  student  of  Pom2)eii, 
the  book,  however,  is  of  course  invaluable ;  and  it  is  only  to 
be  wished  that  its  perusal  had  been  facilitated  by  the 
promised  index,  or  by  a  commentary.  The  first  part  of  the 
journals,  down  to  July,  1764,  is  in  Spanish;  after  that  date 
in  Italian.  After  the  appointment  of  Signer  Fiorelli  to  the 
direction  of  the  excavations,  he  continued  to  publish  the 
progress  of  them  in  a  periodical  work  in  numbers,  entitled, 
Giornale  degli  Scavi  di  Pompei,  which,  however,  appeared 
irregularly,  and  has  been  brought,  v/e  fear,  to  a  prematm'e 
conclusion.  The  title  of  it  is  as  much  too  modest  as  that  of 
the  History  is  too  grand ;  since  it  contains,  besides  the 
journal  of  the  excavations,  elaborate  descriptions  of  the  more 
important  houses  and  works  of  art  discovered,  as  well  as 
literary  disquisitions  on  matters  relating  to  Pompeii. 

Besides  the  substantive  works  here  enumerated,  many 
interesting  and  important  papers  and  pamphlets  on  subjects 
connected  with  Pompeii  have  been  published  separately,  and 
in  various  journals,  by  eminent  Italian  and  otlier  archaeo- 
logists, as  Quaranta,  Niccolini,  Arditi,  Avellino,  Bonucci, 
Fiorelli,  Minervini,  and  others.  They  will  be  found  in  the 
Memorie  della  reale  Accademia  di  ArcJieologia  di  Napoli,  the 
Annali  delV  Instiliito  di  corrispondenza  Archeologica  (Rome  and 
Paris,  1829-57),  and  thd  Biilletino  ArcJieologico  Napolitano,  of 
Avellino,  afterwards  continued  by  Minervini. 

M.  Marc  Monnier,  of  Geneva,  has  also  published  some 
good  papers  on  Pompeii  in  the  Bevue  des  Deux  Mondes,  as 


8 


POMPEII. 


well  as  a  little  book  on  tlie  subject,  which  wdll  be  useful  to 
those  who  read  as  they  run,  and  wish  rather  to  be  amused 
than  instructed. 

There  are  also  separate  works  on  remarkable  Pompeian 
buildings,  as  that  of  Eaoul  Eochette:  La  Maison  du  Poete 
Tragique  a  Pompei,  avec  ses  Peintures  et  Mosa'iques  fidelement 
reproduites  et  un  texte  explicatif,  fol.,  Paris  :  of  Bechi,  Del 
Calcidico  e  della  cripta  di  Eumachia  scavati  nel  foro  di 
Pompeia,  Vanno  1820,  4to.,  Napoli :  of  Millin,  Description  des 
Tomheaux  qui  out  ete  decouverts  a  Pompei  dans  Vannee  1812, 
Naples,  1813;  and  works  by  Falkener  and  Giulio  Minervini 
on  the  house  of  Lucretius,  &c.,  &c. 

The  inscriptions  discovered  at  Pompeii  are  best  given  by 
Mommsen,  in  his  Inscriptiones  Begni  Neapolitani^  p.  112  seq. 
They  do  not  comprehend,  however,  the  graffiti^  or  inscriptions 
traced  with  a  sharp  point  on  walls  and  columns.  These  will 
be  found,  up  to  the  date  of  the  respective  works,  in  Dean 
Wordsworth's  Pompeian  Inscriptions^  or  Specimens  and  Fac- 
similes of  Ancient  Writings  on  the  Walls  of  Buildings  at 
Pompeii,  London,  1846  ;  and  in  Garrucci's  Graffiti  di  Pompei^ 
4to.,  Paris,  1856  ;  which  also  contains  some  ingenious  remarks 
on  ancient  writing. 

Signer  Fiorelli  has  commenced  a  work  entitled,  Monumenta 
EpigrapJiica  Pompeiana  ad  fidem  arclietyporim  expressa,  being 
fac-similes  of  the  existing  inscriptions.  Only  the  first  part, 
containing  the  Oscan  inscriptions,  has  been  published. 

There  are  many  rich  and  voluminous  publications  on  the 
subject  of  Pompeian  art.  One  of  the  earliest  of  them  is  the 
Antichita  di  Ercolano  e  Pompei,  large  fol.,  9  vols.,  Napoli, 
1755 — 1792.  Many  of  the  subjects  of  this  book,  as  well  as 
others  from  other  sources,  were  reproduced  in  a  French  work 
published  at  Paris  by  Didot,  in  8  vols,  large  8vo,  and  entitled 
'  Herculaneumet  Pompei :'  Becueil  general  de  Peintures,  Bronzes, 
Mosaiques,  dc,  decouverts,  jusqua  ce  jour  et  reproduits  d'apres 
le  Antichita  d'  Ercolano,  II  Museo  Borhonico,  et  tous  les 
onvrages  analogues,  augments  de  sujets  inedits  graves  du  trait 
sur  cuivre  par  M.  Boux  aine,  et  accompagne  d  un  texte  explicatif 
par  M.  L,  Barre,  The  Beal  Museo  Borhonico,  begun  in  1824, 
forms  14  vols.  4to.  in  the  Italian  edition,  and,  though  un- 
equally executed,  is  the  richest  collection  of  Neapolitan 
antiquities. 


INTEODUCTION. 


9 


The  work  of  Eaoul  Eocliette  may  also  be  mentioned, 
entitled  Choix  cle  Ptintures  de  Pompei,  la  plupart  de  sujet  His- 
toriqiie,  avec  Vexplicatioa,  c  t  une  introduction  siir  Vhistoire  de  la 
Peintiire  cliez  hs  Grecs  et  chez  les  Bomains,  with  coloured  plates, 
large  fol.,  Paris,  1844.  There  are  also  many  other  separate 
publications,  which  it  would  be  too  long  to  enumerate ;  and 
we  shall  content  ourselves  with  only  mentioning  the  German 
work  of  Ternite,  Wandcjemdlde  aus  Pompei  und  Herculanum 
mit  einem  erlduternden  Texte,  von  E.  O.Miiller,  Berlin,  1844  ; 
and  with  reminding  the  reader  that  the  second  volume  of 
Overbeck's  new  edition  is  devoted  to  the  subject  of  Pompeian 
art. 

It  remains  to  mention  that  the  best  plan  of  Pompeii  is  that 
of  Fiorelli,  entitled  Tabula  Colonice  Venerice  Comelke  Pompeis, 
It  is  in  42  sheets,  which,  put  together,  form  a  superficies  of 
140  square  palms,  being  the  333  i  part  of  the  true  superficies. 
The  small  plan,  reduced  from  this,  and  sold  at  the  gates  of 
Pompeii,  is  on  the  scale  of  1666  parts  of  the  true  superficies. 
There  is  also  a  good  plan  by  Jorio. 


10 


POMPEII. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HISTORY  OF  VESUVIUS. 

Before  commencing  tlie  account  of  Pompeii  itself,  it  will 
not  be  out  of  place  to  give  a  sliort  description  of  the  ancient 
state  of  the  neighbourhood  in  which  it  stood,  together  with  a 
sketch  of  the  history  of  Vesuvius. 

The  Bay  of  Naples,  anciently  called  Crater  (the  Cup),  was 
known  to  the  ancients  at  an  early  ]Deriod.  The  remark- 
able appearance  of  its  shores  struck  their  fancy ;  and  they 
named  them  Phlegra,  or  Phlegraei  Campi,  Burnt  Fields,  from 
the  traces  of  igneous  action  everywhere  visible,  and  ac- 
counted for  these  natural  appearances  by  the  fabled  battle 
between  the  giants  and  the  gods,  assisted  by  Hercules,  in 
which  the  giants  were  cast  down  and  destroyed  by  Jupiter's 
thunderbolts.  The  earth,  riven,  scorched,  and  thunder- 
stained,  bore  enduring  witness  to  the  destructive  power  of 
these  weapons.  Here  was  the  celebrated  lake  Avernus,  the 
mouth  of  hell,  according  to  the  Italian  poets,  over  which  no 
bird  could  complete  its  flight,  but  dropped,  overcome  by  the 
sulphureous  exhalations.  This  is  one,  probably,  of  that 
numerous  tribe  of  legends  which  have  been  framed  to  fit  or 
to  explain  a  name.  Its  Greek  name  is  Aornos,  literally 
Birdless ;  its  dreary  and  terror-striking  appearance,  when  its 
precipitous  sides  were  thickly  clothed  with  w^ood,  suggested 
the  notion  that  it  was  the  opening  of  the  nether  world  ;  hence 
the  story  of  the  foetid  atmosphere  and  its  deadly  effects 
Yet  even  here  there  may  be  some  foundation  of  truth ;  for 
w^e  have  the  authority  of  Sir  William  Hamilton  for  stating, 
that  while  wild  fowl  abound  in  other  pools  and  lakes  in 
this  quarter,  they  shun  Avernus,  or  pay  it  but  a  passing  visit.* 
Diodorus  derives  the  name  of  Phlegra  from  Vesuvius,  which, 
he  says,  like  ^tna,  used  to  vomit  fire,  and  still  retains  traces 
of  its  former  eruptions.!    He  spoke  from  observation  of  the 

*  Campi  Phlegrgei.    Mr,  Lyell  is  also  inclined  to  admit  the  story.  i\nd 
adduces  instances  of  similar  mephitic  exhalations, 
t  iv.  21. 


HISTORY  OF  VESUVIUS. 


11 


mountain,  not  from  tradition,  for  tradition  recorded  no  erup- 
tion previous  to  the  Christian  era  ;  but  he  probably  erred  in 
the  derivation  of  the  name.  Traces  of  volcanic  action  were 
as  evident  round  Baise  and  Puteoli  as  on  Vesuvius ;  and  the 
ancients  appear  to  have  had  some  record  of  eruptions  in  this 
quarter,  since  they  fabled  that  the  giant  Typhon,  who  threw 
stones  to  heaven  with,  a  loud  noise,  and  from  whose  eyes  and 
mouth  fire  proceeded,  lay  buried  under  the  neighbouring 
island  of  Inarime  or  Pithecusa,  now  called  Ischia.*  A 
similar  fable  accounted  for  the  eruptions  of  j^tna. 

By  turns  a  pitchy  cloud  she  rolls  on  high, 

By  turns  hot  ernbei's  from  her  entrails  t\y, 

And  flakes  of  mounting  flames,  that  lick  the  sky. 

Oft  from  her  bowels  massy  rocks  are  thrown, 

And,  shivei-ed  by  the  force,  come  piecemeal  down. 

Oft  liquid  lakes  of  burning  sulphur  flow, 

Fed  from  the  fiery  springs  that  boil  below. 

Enceladus,  they  say,  transfixed  by  Jove, 

With  blasted  limbs  came  trembling  fiom  above; 

And  where  he  fell  the  avenging  liather  drew 

This  blasted  hill,  and  on  his  body  threw. 

As  often  as  he  turns  his  weary  sides 

He  shakes  the  solid  isle,  and  smoke  the  heavens  hides. 

Dryden,  ^n.  lib.  iii.  572. 

We  need  hardly  say  that  the  poets  vary  in  these  stories : 
Ovid  places  Typhon  under  ^tna. 

In  the  superstitions  of  the  middle  ages  Vesuvius  assumed 
the  character  which  had  before  been  given  to  Avernus,  and 
was  regarded  as  the  mouth  of  hell.  Cardinal  Damiano  relates 
the  following  stories,  in  a  letter  addressed  to  Pope  Nicholas 
II.  "  A  servant  of  God  dwelt  alone,  near  Naples,  on  a  lofty 
rock  hard  by  the  highway.  As  this  man  was  singing  hymns 
by  night,  he  opened  the  window  of  his  cell  to  observe  the 
hour ;  when,  lo !  he  saw  passing  many  men,  black  as  Ethi- 
opians, driving  a  large  troop  of  packhorses  laden  with  hay ; 
and  he  was  anxious  to  ask  who  they  were,  and  why  they 
carried  with  them  this  fodder  for  cattle?  And  they  an- 
swered, '  We  are  evil  spirits ;  and  this  food  which  we  prepare 
is  not  for  flocks  or  herds,  but  to  foment  those  fires  which  are 
kindled  against  men's  souls  ;  for  we  wait,  first  for  Pandul- 
phus,  Prince  of  Capua,  who  now  lies  sick;  and  then  for 

*  Strabo,  lib.  v.  c.  4.,  §  9. 


12 


POMPEII. 


John,  the  captain  of  the  garrison  of  Naples,  who  as  yet  is 
alive  and  well.'  Then  w^ent  that  man  of  God  to  John,  and 
related  faithfully  that  which  he  had  seen  and  heard.  At 
that  time  the  Emperor  Otho  II.,  being  abont  to  wage  war  on 
the  Saracens,  was  journeying  toward  Calabria.  John  there- 
fore answered,  '  I  must  first  go  reverently  and  meet  the 
Emperor,  and  take  counsel  with  him  concerning  the  state  of 
this  land.  But  after  he  is  gone  I  promise  to  forsake  the 
world,  and  to  assume  the  monastic  habit.'  Moreover,  to 
prove  whether  the  priest's  story  were  true,  he  sent  one  to 
Capua,  who  found  Pandulphus  dead ;  and  John  himself 
lived  scarce  fifteen  days,  dying  before  the  Emperor  reached 
those  parts ;  upon  whose  death  the  mountain  Vesuvius,  from 
which  hell  often  belches  forth,  broke  out  into  flames,  as 
might  clearly  be  j)roved,  because  the  hay  which  those  demons 
got  ready  was  nothing  else  than  the  fire  of  that  fell  confla- 
gration prepared  for  these  reprobate  and  wicked  men ;  for  as 
often  as  a  reprobate  rich  man  dies  in  those  parts,  the  fii'e  is 
seen  to  burst  from  the  above-named  mountain,  and  such  a 
mass  of  sulphureous  resin  flows  from  it  as  makes  a  torrent 
W'hich  by  its  downward  impulse  descends  even  to  the  sea. 
And  in  verity  a  former  prince  of  Palermo  once  saw  from  a 
distance  sulphureous  pitchy  flames  burst  out  from  Vesuvius, 
and  said  that  sui^ely  some  rich  man  was  just  about  to  die, 
and  go  down  to  hell.  Alas  for  the  blinded  minds  of  evil 
men  I  That  very  night,  as  he  lay  regardless  in  bed,  he 
breathed  his  last.  There  was  also  a  Neapolitan  priest,  who 
wished  to  Imow  more  of  things  not  lawful  to  be  known,  who, 
when  that  infernal  pit  belched  flames  more  fiercely  than 
usual,  with  presumptuous  boldness  resolved  to  visit  it.  So 
having  solemnized  the  mass,  he  went  on  his  way,  armed,  as 
it  were,  with  the  sacred  vestments  ;  but  this  rash  inquirer, 
approaching  nearer  than  men  use  to  go,  never  reappeared, 
being  unable  to  return.  Another  priest,  who  had  left  his 
mother  sick  at  Beneventum,  as  he  travelled  through  the 
bounds  of  Naples,  and  was  intent  upon  the  upstreaming 
flames,  heard  a  voice  of  one  bewailing,  which  he  perceived 
evidently  to  be  the  voice  of  his  mother.  He  marked  the 
time,  and  found  it  to  have  been  the  hour  of  her  death."* 
This  passage  is  taken  from  a  letter  from  Cardinal  Damiano 
*  Damiani  Epistolae,  ]ib.  i.  9. 


HISTORY  OF  VESUVIUS. 


13 


to  Pope  Nicholas  II.,  written  about  the  year  1060.  The 
SI  perstition  was  natural  enough ;  and  similar  ones  were 
entertained  at  a  much  later  date  concerning  -^tna  and  the 
island  of  Stromboli,  in  which  there  is  a  volcano  in  almost 
constant  activity. 

Strabo,  who  wrote  some  part  of  his  work  at  least  in  the 
reign  of  Tiberius,  about  the  commencement  of  our  era,  thus 
describes  the  Phlegrsean  Fields  : — "  After  doubling  Mi senum, 
next  comes  a  lake*  (now  Mare  Morto),  beyond  which  the 
coast  falls  back  in  a  deep  bay,  w^here  stands  Baise  and  its 
warm  baths,  useful  both  for  purposes  of  pleasure  and  for  the 
cure  of  diseases.  The  Lucrine  lake  borders  upon  Baise ; 
within  it  is  lake  Avernus.  Here  our  ancestors  placed  the 
scene  of  Homer's  Nekuia  ;•]•  and  here,  they  say,  was  an 
oracle,  where  answers  were  returned  by  the  dead,  to  which 
Ulysses  came.  Avernus  is  a  deep  hollow  with  a  narrow 
entrance,  in  size  and  shape  well  suited  for  a  harbour,  but 
incapacitated  for  that  purpose  by  the  shallow  Lucrine  lake 
which  lies  before  it.  It  is  enclosed  by  steep  ridges,  which 
overhang  it  everywhere,  except  at  the  entrance,  now  highly 
cultivated,  but  formerly  enclosed  by  a  savage  trackless  forest 
of  large  trees,  which  threw  a  superstitious  gloom  over  the 
hollow.  The  inhabitants  further  fabled  that  the  birds 
which  flew  over  it  fell  down  into  the  water,  destroyed  by  the 
rising  exhalations,  as  in  other  places  of  this  sort,  which  the 
Greeks  call  Plutonia,  or  places  sacred  to  Pluto ;  and  imagined 
that  Avernus  was  a  Plutonium,  and  the  abode  where  the 
Cimmerians  were  said  to  dwell.  Here  is  a  fountain  of  fresh 
water  by  the  sea  ;  but  all  persons  abstain  from  it,  believing 
it  to  be  the  Styx;  and  somewhere  near  was  the  oracle. 
Here,  also,  as  they  thought,  was  Pyriphlegethon,J  judging 
from  the  hot  springs  near  lake  Acherusia.    The  Lucrine 

*  The  text  has  Xi/xtju,  a  harbour,  though  some  of  the  Latin  versions  have 
palus  (Aifii/T]), 

t  The  title  of  the  Xlth  book  of  the  Odyssey,  the  scene  of  which  is  laid 
among  the  dead. 

X  Pyriphlegethon,  burning  with  fire ;  one  of  the  three  rivers  which  encom- 
passed hell.  Styx  was  another.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  Acherusia  here 
meant  was  Avernus,  the  Lucrine  lake,  or  the  Lago  di  Kusaro,  about  two  miles 
from  Avernus  and  between  Cumse  and  Cape  IVJiseno.  There  was  another  lake  of 
the  same  name  in  Epirus. 


14 


POMPEII. 


lake  in  breadth  reaches  to  Baiae,  being  separated  from  the 
sea  by  a  mound,  about  a  mile  long,  and  wide  enough  for  a 
broad  carriage-road,  said  to  have  been  made  by  Hercules  as 
he  was  driving  Geryon's  oxen.  Being  much  exposed  to  the 
surf,  so  as  not  to  be  easily  traversed  on  foot,  Agrippa  raised 
and  completed  it.  The  lake  admits  light  ships,*  is  useless 
as  a  naval  station,  but  affords  an  inexhaustible  supply  of 
oysters.  Here,  according  to  some,  was  the  lake  Acherusia, 
but  Artemidorus  makes  it  the  same  with  Avernu-s.  Next  to 
Baise  come  the  shores  and  city  of  Dicsearchia,  formerly  a 
port  of  the  Cumasans,  placed  on  a  hill.  During  the  invasion 
of  Hannibal,  the  Eomans  colonized  it,  and  called  it  Puteoli, 
from  (putei)  the  wells ;  or,  as  others  say,  they  so  named  the 
whole  district,  as  far  as  Baiae  and  the  Cumaean  territory, 
from  the  stench  (putor)  of  its  waters,  because  it  is  full  of 
sulphur  and  fire  and  hot  springs.  Some  think  that  this  is 
the  reason  why  the  country  about  Cumae  is  called  Phlegra,  and 
that  the  thunder-riven  wounds  of  the  fallen  giants  pour  out 
these  streams  of  fire  and  water.  Immediately  over  it  is 
Vulcan's  assembly-room  (Heph^esti  Agora,  now  the  Solfatara), 
a  level  space  surrounded  by  burning  heights,  with  numerous 
chimney- like  spiracles,  which  rumble  loudly  ;  and  the  bottom 
is  full  of  ductile  sulphur.  Next  to  Dic^archia,  is  Neapolis  ; 
next  to  Neapolis,  Herculaneum,  standing  on  a  promontory 
remarkably  open  to  the  south-west  wind  (Libs),  which  makes 
it  unusally  healthy.  This  city,  and  its  next  neighbour, 
Pompeii,  on  the  river  Sarnus,  were  originally  held  by  the 
Osci,  then  by  the  Tyrrhenians  and  Pelasgians,  then  by  the 
Samnites,  who  in  their  turn  were  expelled  by  the  Romans. 
Pompeii  is  the  port  of  Nola,  Nuceria,  and  Acerr83,  being 
situated  on  the  river  Sarnus,  which  is  suited  for  the  expor- 
tation and  importation  of  cargoes.  Above  these  places  rises 
Vesuvius,  well  cultivated  and  inhabited  all  round,  except  its 
top,  which  is  for  the  most  part  level,  and  entirely  barren, 
ashy  to  the  view,  displaying  cavernous  hollows  in  rocks, 
which  look  as  if  they  had  been  eaten  by  the  fire,  so  that  we 

*  Strabo  has  before  said  that  Agrippa  cut  through  this  mound,  and  thus 
Gstabhshed  a  communication  between  Avernus  and  the  sea.  What  he  says 
here  is  entirely  contrary  to  the  later  author,  Dion  Cassius,  who  asserts  that  m 
the  hands  of  Agrippa  Avernus  became  an  excellent  port.  This  whole  passage 
is  in  many  parts  very  obscure,  and  may  be  suspected  to  be  corrupt. 


HISTORY  OF  VESUVIUS. 


15 


may  suppose  this  spot  to  have  been  a  volcano  formerly,  with 
burning  craters,  now  extinguished  for  want  of  fuel."* 

It  will  occur  at  once  to  the  reader,  that  this  description  is 
totally  inapplicable  to  Vesuvius  as  it  now  exists.  The 
general  form  of  the  mountain  is  too  well  known  to  need 
description,  and  certainly  its  elevated  cone  can  by  no  stretch 
of  ^vords  be  characterised  as  a  level  top.  It  seems  probable, 
from  various  considerations,  that  this  cone  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin.  It  stands  within  a  circular  volcanic 
ridge,  called  Somma,  broken  away  to  the  south,  where  there 
is  still  a  projection,  called  the  Pedamentina,  apparently 
marking  the  continuation  of  Somma.  The  most  experienced 
observers  seem  agreed  that  this  ridge  is  the  remains  of  an 
ancient  volcano,  much  larger  than  the  existing  one,  and  was 
once  surmounted  by  a  cone  like  that  of  iEtna,  which,  being 
subject  to  constant  degradation,  and  requiring  constant 
supj)lies  of  fresh  materials  to  maintain  its  height,  sunk  down 
into  the  earth,  in  the  long  period  of  inactivity  which  we 
know  to  have  occurred  antecedent  to  the  Christian  era. 
Parallel  instances  may  be  found  in  tlie  lakes  of  Avernus  and 
Agnano,  which  are  evidently  the  sites  of  ancient  volcanic 
cones  which  have  fallen  in,  not  craters  of  eruption.  Ilie 
reawakened  fires  of  Vesuvius  soon  blew  out  the  mass  of 
materials  whicli  choked  their  former  vent,  and  have  formed 
around  that  vent  a  second  cone,  concentric  with  and  similar 
to  its  predecessor,  but  of  smaller  dimensions.  Instances 
exactly  similar  to  this  also  occur.  We  may  mention  Barren 
Island,  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  where  an  active  volcano  rises 
out  of  the  sea,  in  the  centre  of  what  is  evidently  a  sunken 
cone.  The  cone  of  the  Peak  of  Teneriifc  also  rises  in 
the  middle  of  a  circular  enclosure,  like  Somma,  and  a 
process  analogous  to  the  formation  of  the  cone  of  Vesuvius 
may  now  be  frequently  observed  going  on  within  the  crater 
of  that  mountain,  in  which,  during  its  periods  of  activity, 
a  minor  mountain  is  continually  rising. |  Finally,  some 
volcanic  mountains  are  known  to  have  fallen  in  or  to 
have  been  dispersed,  as  Papandayang,  in  the  island  of  Java, 

*  Strabo,  lib.  v.  c,  4.,  §  5 — 8.  Such  parts  of  the  original  as  do  not  bear  on 
our  subject  have  been  omitted. 

t  Canipi.  PiilegrcTi,  pi.  2,  where  there  is  a  minute  representation  of  tlie 
cnanges  thus  produced  in  the  form  of  the  mountain. 


16 


POMPEII. 


wliicli.  in  the  year  1772,  was  reduced  in  height  from  9000  to 
about  5000  feet.  So  also,  in  the  province  of  Quito,  a  great 
part  of  the  crater  and  summit  of  Carguirazo  fell  in  during  an 
earthquake  in  1698.^ 

Supposing,  therefore,  that  the  present  cone  is  based  upon 
the  ruins  of  a  larger  mountain,  it  probably  did  not  exist  when 
Strabo  wrote  the  above  description,  but  w^as  throw^n  up  in 
the  first-recorded  eruption,  in  the  year  79,  or  at  some  later 
period.  This  will  agree  with  the  negative  testimony  of 
other  authors,  who  make  no  mention  of  it,  or  speak  cursorily 
of  it ;  not  as  we  might  expect  them  to  mention  so  prominent 
a  feature  as  it  now  is  in  the  much  admired  scenery  of  BaiaB 
and  Naples.  In  Virgil  the  name  occurs  only  once  ;  and 
then  it  is  introduced  to  commend  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
The  great  battle  between  the  Komans  and  the  Latins,  in 
B.C.  340,  in  which  Decius  devoted  himself  to  death,  w^as  fought 
at  Vesuvius. I  It  was  on  Vesuvius  that  Spartacus  encamped, 
with  his  army  of  insurgent  slaves  and  gladiators.  "  The 
Komans  besieged  them  in  their  fort,  situate  upon  a  hill  that 
had  a  very  steep  and  narrow  ascent  to  it,  and  kept  the  passage 
up  to  them :  all  the  rest  of  the  ground  roimd  about  it  was 
n6thing  but  high  rocks  hanging  over,  and  upon  them  great 
store  of  wild  vines.  Of  these  the  bondmen  cut  the  strongest 
strips,  and  made  thereof  ladders,  like  to  ship-ladders  of 
ropes,  of  such  a  length  and  so  strong  that  they  reached  from 
the  top  of  the  hill  even  to  the  very  bottom  :  upon  those  they 
all  came  safely  down,  saving  one  that  tarried  above  to  throw 
down  their  armour  after  them,  who  afterwards  by  the  same 
ladder  saved  himself  last  of  all.  The  Eomans  mistrusting  no 
such  matter,  these  bondmen  compassed  the  hill  round,  assailed 
them  behind,  and  put  them  in  such  a  fear,  with  the  sudden 
onset,  as  they  fled  every  man,  and  so  was  their  camp  taken. "± 
This  passage  also  is  totally  inconsistent  with  the  present 
state  of  Vesuvius.  Its  lofty  summit  would  be  ill  suited  for 
an  encampment,  nor  could  the  wild  vine  ever  have  flourished 
there;  but  both  Plutarch  and  Strabo  will  be  clear,  if  we 
suppose  that  the  even  summit  of  Somma,  then  probably  more 
perfect  than  it  now  is,  was  the  highest  part  of  the  mountain, 
and  that  it  was  only  accessible  by  a  chasm,  such  as  that 

*  Lyell,  Principles  of  Geology,  ch.  xxv.  p.  436,  445. 
t  Liv.  viii.  8.  J  Koj  th';:  Plutarch,  Cra>;sus. 


HISTORY  OF  VESUVIUS. 


17 


which  gives  admission  to  Avernus.  While  the  Eomans  were 
guarding  this  spot,  thej  might  reasonably  feel  confident  that 
the  enclosed  enemy  could  find  no  other  outlet. 

After  many  centuries  of  repose,  the  volcano  broke  out  with 
great  violence,  and  in  its  first  eruption  destroyed  Herculaneum, 
Pompeii,  and  Stabise.  This  calamity  is  described  by  an  eye- 
witness, the  younger  Pliny,  whose  narration  will  form  part  of 
the  next  chapter.  It  is  also  mentioned  more  than  a  century 
later  by  Dion  Cassius.  The  passage  seems  to  indicate,  as 
far  as  it  is  intelligible,  that  the  present  cone  did  not  exist 
when  he  wrote ;  and  is  further  curious,  as  proving  that  the 
old  fables  of  the  Battle  of  the  Gods  and  Giants,  and  of  the 
inhumation  of  the  latter,  were  not  forgotten  even  in  the  third 
century. 

"  During  the  autumn  a  great  fire  broke  out  in  Campania. 
Vesuvius  is  a  mountain  on  the  coast  near  Naples,  which  con- 
tains inexhaustible  fountains  of  fire  ;  and  formerly  it  was  all 
of  the  same  height,  and  fire  rose  in  the  middle  of  it  (for  the 
only  traces  of  fire  were  in  the  middle),  but  the  outer  parts 
remain  fireless  to  this  day.  Hence,  these  continuing  un- 
injured, but  the  centre  being  dried  up  and  reduced  to  ashes, 
the  encircling  crags  still  retain  their  ancient  height  :  but  the 
burnt  part  being  consumed,  in  lapse  of  time  has  settled  down 
and  become  hollow,  so  that  to  compare  small  things  to  great, 
the  whole  mountain  now  resembles  an  amphitheatre.  And 
the  top  is  clothed  with  trees  and  vines,  but  the  circular  cavity 
is  abandoned  to  fire ;  and  by  day  it  sends  up  smoke  and  by 
night  flame,  so  that  one  would  think  all  sorts  of  incense  vessels 
were  burning  there.  This  continues  always  with  more  or  less 
violence,  and  often,  after  any  considerable  subsidence,  it  casts 
up  ashes  and  stones,  impelled  by  violent  blasts  of  wind,  with 
a  loud  noise  and  roaring,  because  its  vent-holes  are  not  set 
close  together,  but  are  narrow  and  concealed.* 

"  Such  is  Vesuvius,  and  these  things  take  place  in  it  almost 
every  year.  But  all  eruptions  which  have  happened  since, 
though  they  may  have  appeared  unusually  great  to  those  even 
who  have  been  accustomed  to  such  sights,  would  be  trifling, 
even  if  collected  into  one,  when  compared  to  what  occurred  at 
the  time  of  which  we  speak.  Many  huge  men  surpassing 
human  stature,  such  as  the  giants  are  described  to  have 
*  This  description  is  not  very  clear,  but  neither  is  the  Greek. 


18 


POMPEII. 


been,  aj^peared  wandering  in  the  air  and  upon  the  earth,  at 
one  time  frequenting  the  mountain,  at  another  the  fields  and 
cities  in  its  neighbourhood.  Afterwards  came  great  droughts 
and  violent  earthquakes,  so  that  the  whole  plain  boiled  and 
bubbled,  and  the  hills  leapt,  and  there  were  noises  under- 
ground like  thunder,  and  above  ground  like  roaring,  and 
the  sea  made  a  noise,  and  the  heavens  sounded ;  and  then 
suddenly  a  mighty  crash  was  heard  as  if  the  mountains  were 
coming  together,  and  first  great  stones  were  thrown  up  to  the 
very  summits,  then  mighty  fires  and  immense  smoke,  so  that 
the  whole  air  was  overshadowed,  and  the  sun  entirely  hidden, 
as  in  an  eclipse. 

"  Thus  day  was  turned  into  night,  and  light  into  darkness, 
and  some  thought  the  giants  were  rising  again  (for  many 
phantoms  of  them  were  seen  in  the  smoke,  and  a  blast,  as  if 
of  trumpets,  was  heard),  while  others  believed  that  the  earth 
was  to  return  to  Chaos,  or  to  be  consumed  by  fire.  There- 
fore men  fied,  some  from  the  houses  out  into  the  ways,  others 
that  were  without,  into  their  houses ;  some  quitted  the  land 
for  the  sea,  some  the  sea  for  the  land,  being  confounded  in 
mind,  and  thinking  every  j)lace  at  a  distance  safer  than  where 
they  were.  Meanwhile,  an  inexpressible  quantity  of  dust 
was  blown  out,  and  filled  land,  sea,  and  air,  which  did  much 
other  mischief  to  men,  fields,  and  cattle,  and  destroyed  all 
the  birds  and  fishes,  and  besides  buiied  two  entire  cities, 
Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  while  the  population  Avas  sitting 
in  the  theatre.*  For  this  dust  was  so  abundant  that  it 
reached  Africa,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  and  filled  the  air  above 
Eome,  and  overclouded  the  sun ;  which  caused  much  fear 
even  there  for  many  days,  men  neither  knowing  nor  being 
able  to  conjecture  what  had  happened.  But  they  thought 
that  every  thing  was  to  be  thrown  into  confusion,  the  sun  to 
fall  extinguished  to  the  earth,  the  earth  to  rise  to  the  sky. 
At  the  time,  however,  these  ashes  did  them  no  harm,  but  sub- 
sequently they  produced  a  pestilential  disease."! 

It  does  not  appear  that  any  lava  flowed  from  Vesuvius  ;  the 

*  The  wording  leaves  it  doubtful  which  theatre  is  meant.  The  theatres 
of  both  cities  have  been  explored,  and  no  remains  found.  The  eruption  may- 
have  come  on  while  the  people  were  assembled,  but  they  were  not  destroyed  in 
tlie  theatres. 

f  Dion  Cassius,  lib.  Ixvi.  23. 


HISTORY  OF  VESUVIUS. 


19 


ejected  matter  consisted  of  rocks,  pumice,  and  ashes,  whicli 
seem,  from  the  operations  at  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum, 
to  have  been  partly  changed  into  liquid  mud  by  torrents  of 
rain.  Being  reawakened,  the  volcano  continued  in  pretty 
constant  activity.  It  is  evident  from  the  passage  just  quoted, 
that  from  this  year  until  the  commencement  of  the  third 
century,  when  Dion  wrote,  eruptions  of  more  or  less  violence 
were  continually  recurring.  Other  eruptions  are  mentioned 
in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  Procopius,  who  died  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth,  speaks  of  the  mountain  emitting 
rivers  of  fire.*  He  describes  it  in  terms  w^hich  correspond 
somewhat  with  a  cone  and  crater ;  and,  like  Dion,  conveys 
the  idea  of  its  being  constantly  at  work.  Vesuvius  is  very 
precipitous  below,  encircled  with  w^ood  above,  terribly  wild 
and  craggy.  In  the  centre  of  its  summit  is  a  very  deep  chasm, 
which  we  may  suppose  to  reach  quite  to  the  bottom  of  the 
mountain,  and  it  is  possible  to  see  fire  in  it,  if  a  man  dare 
peep  over.  Usually,  the  fire  returns  upon  itself  (  ec/)'  lavriiv 
o-rpe^erat),  without  molesting  those  who  live  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood ;  but  when  the  mountain  utters  a  roaring  noise,  in 
general  it  emits  soon  after  a  vast  body  of  cinders."  He  adds, 
that  these  ashes  w^ere  often  carried  a  vast  distance,  even  to 
the  coast  of  Africa  and  Byzantium,  in  which  city  so  much 
terror  was  once  caused  by  the  phenomenon,  that  a  solemn 
supplication  was  established  in  consequence,  and  continued 
yearly.f 

The  first  stream  of  lava,  of  which  we  have  authentic 
account,  broke  out  in  the  year  1036,  during  the  seventh  erup- 
tion from  the  resuscitation  of  the  volcano. {  Another  erup- 
tion occurred  in  1049,  another  in  1138  or  9  ;  after  which 
there  was  a  pause  of  168  years,  till  1306.  From  this  year, 
to  1631,  there  was  a  cessation,  except  one  slight  eruption  in 
1500.  During  this  long  pause,  a  remarkable  event  occurred 
in  another  part  of  the  Phlcgraean  fields.    In  little  more  than 

*  Bell.  Goth.  iv.  35. 

t  Piocop.  Bell.  Goth.  ii.  4. 

X  The  six  previous  eruptions  were  those  of  79,  203,  472,  512,  685,  and 
993.  That  of  472,  recorded  in  the  Chronicon  of  Marcellinus,  ad.  ann.,  seems 
to  have  been  a  very  violent  one.  It  mar  be  inferred,  from  Procopius'  descrip- 
tion of  the  eruption  of  512,  that  lava  was  ejected  on  that  occasion: — plei  Se 
Kai  pva^  iuravda  irvphs  e/c  tt^s  CLKpcopeias  KaraTeLVwy  &xpi  €S  rov  opovs  rhi 
"rrpSiToba  kcu  eri  Trp6aci). — Loc.  cit. 


20 


POMPEII. 


twenty-four  hours,  a  new  hill,  called  Monte  Nuovo,  was 
thrown  up  to  the  height  of  440  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  its  base  being  nearly  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circumference. 
It  stands  partly  on  the  site  of  the  Lucrine  lake,  which  has 
now  dwindled  into  a  shallow  pool.* 

Bracini  descended  into  the  crater  of  Vesuvius  shortly 
before  the  eruption  of  1631.  He  gives  the  following  account 
of  it :  The  crater  was  five  miles  in  circumference,  and  about 
6000  paces  deep;  its  sides  were  covered  with  brushwood, 
and  at  the  bottom  there  was  a  plain,  on  which  cattle  grazed. 
In  the  woody  parts  boars  frequently  harboured.  In  the 
midst  of  the  plain,  within  the  crater,  was  a  narrow  passage, 
through  which,  by  a  winding  path,  you  could  descend  about 
a  mile  among  rocks  and  stones  till  you  came  to  another  more 
spacious  plain,  covered  with  ashes.  In  this  plain  were  three 
little  pools,  placed  in  a  triangular  form ;  one  towards  the  east, 
of  hot  water,  corrosive  and  bitter  beyond  measure;  another 
towards  the  west,  of  water  Salter  than  that  of  the  sea ;  the 
third  of  hot  water  that  had  no  particular  taste. "| 

This  account,  in  spite  of  its  minute  enumeration  of  pools 
of  water  and  points  of  the  compass,  is  not  very  intelligible, 
and  may  fairly  be  presumed  not  to  be  very  accurate.  Judg- 
ing from  the  size  which  he  ascribes  to  the  crater,  far  larger 
than  any  which  we  know  to  have  existed  in  the  present  cone, 
one  would  suppose  that  he  meant  its  boundary  to  be  the 
ridge  of  Somma,  and  that  the  valley  between  Somma  and 
Vesuvius,  now  called  Atrio  de'  Cavalli,  the  hall  of  horses 
(because  it  is  here  that  visitors  to  the  summit  of  the  mountain 
leave  their  horses  to  wait  while  they  ascend  the  cone  on  foot), 
is  the  plain  where  cattle  grazed.  Still  this  is  inconsistent 
with  the  further  descent  in  the  centre  of  that  plain,  unless  we 
suppose  that  where  the  cone  now  stands  there  w^as  then  a 
chasm ;  and  surely  the  present  cone  cannot  have  grown  up 
within  the  last  two  centuries  unobserved  and  undescribed. 
We  have,  therefore,  but  a  choice  of  difficulties  in  explaining 
the  passage  ;  and  a  further  one  occurs  in  the  great  depth 
attributed  to  the  crater,  which,  according  to  this  statement, 
must  have  been  accessible  at  a  depth  far  below  the  level  of 
the  sea.    Still,  so  far  as  we  can  form  any  opinion  on  it,  the 

*  Lyell,  Principles  of  Geology,  chcip.  xix. 
f  Canipi  Phlegrsei,  page  62, 


HISTORY  OF  VESUVIUS. 


21 


mountain,  after  tliis  long  pause,  appears  to  have  approximated 
considerably  to  the  state  in  which  it  afforded  a  safe  refuge  to 
Spartacus,  as  described  by  Plutarch,  and  the  passage  thus 
furnishes  a  fresh  presumption  that  the  modern  cone  did  not 
then  exist.  We  may  add  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  authority  to  the 
reasons  already  given,  for  supposing  Somma  to  be  the  ancient 
Vesuvius.  "  I  have  seen  ancient  lavas  in  the  plain  on  the 
other  side  of  Somma,  which  could  never  have  come  from  the 
present  Vesuvius."* 

A  brief  period  of  repose  followed  the  eruption  of  1631, 
but  it  lasted  only  till  1666  ;  from  which  time  to  the  present 
there  has  been  a  series  of  eruptions,  at  intervals  rarely  ex- 
ceeding ten  years,  generally  recurring  much  more  frequently. 
Those  of  1776  and  1777  are  more  than  commonly  celebrated, 
from  having  been  described  at  large  by  an  eye-witness.  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  in  his  splendid  work,  entitled  '  Campi 
Phlegraei.'  The  eruption  of  1779  was  also  described  by  him, 
and  is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of  its  pheno- 
mena. During  the  whole  month  of  July  the  volcano  gave 
the  usual  warnings  of  an  approaching  paroxysm,  by  internal 
rumbling  noises,  and  frequent  jets  of  smoke  and  red-hot 
stones.  On  August  the  5th  it  was  in  a  state  of  violent  agita- 
tion :  white  and  sulphureous  smoke  issued  continually  from 
the  crater,  and  lay  piled  up  cloud  upon  cloud,  resembling 
bales  of  the  whitest  cotton,  until  a  mass  of  them  was  accu- 
mulated above  the  summit,  four  times  the  height  and  size  of 
the  mountain  itself.  In  the  midst  of  this,  stones  and  ashes 
were  continually  shot  up  to  a  heiglit  of  2000  feet  or  upwards. 
At  this  time  a  quantity  of  lava  was  heaved  up  high  enough 
to  clear  the  mouth  of  the  crater,  and  took  its  passage  down 
the  side  opposite  to  Somma. 

On  Friday  and  Saturday,  the  6th  and  7th  of  August,  the 
mountain  was  less  violently  disturbed,  but  at  twelve  o'clock 
on  the  night  of  the  latter  day  its  fermentation  increased 
greatly.  "  I  was  watching  its  motions  from  the  Mole  of 
Naples,  which  has  a  full  view  of  the  volcano,  and  had  been 
witness  to  several  picturesque  effects  produced  by  the  re- 
flection of  the  deep  red  fire  which  issued  from  the  crater  of 
Vesuvius,  and  mounted  up  in  the  midst  of  the  huge  clouds, 


*  Campi  Phlegrcei,  page  63. 


22 


POMPEII. 


when  a  summer  storm,  called  here  a  Tropea,  came  on  sud- 
denly, and  blended  its  heavy  watery  clouds  with  the  sulphu- 
reous and  mineral  ones,  which  were  already  like  so  many 
other  mountains  piled  over  the  summit  of  the  volcano.  At 
this  moment  a  fountain  of  fire  was  shot  up  to  an  incredible 
height,  casting  so  bright  a  light  that  the  smallest  objects 
could  be  clearly  distinguished  at  any  place  within  six  miles 
or  more  of  Vesuvius.  The  black  stormy  clouds  passing  over, 
and  at  times  covering  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  bright  column 
of  fire,  at  other  times  clearing  away  and  giving  a  full  view 
of  it,  with  the  various  tints  produced  by  its  reverberated 
light  on  the  white  clouds  above,  in  contrast  with  the  pale 
flashes  of  forked  lightning  that  attended  the  Tropea,  formed 
such  a  scene  as  no  power  of  art  can  ever  express."  One  of 
the  king  of  Sicily's  game-keepers,  who  was  out  near  Ottaiano 
in  this  storm,  was  surprised  to  find  the  drops  of  rain  scald 
his  hands  and  face,  a  phenomenon  occasioned,  probably,  by 
the  clouds  having  acquired  a  great  degree  of  heat  in  passing 
by  the  above-mentioned  column  of  fire. 

On  Sunday,  Vesuvius  was  quiet  till  towards  six  o'clock  in 
the  evening,  when  the  smoke  began  to  gather  over  its  crater, 
and  the  usual  jets  of  stones  and  ashes  commenced  and  con- 
tinued to  increase.  "  At  about  nine  o'clock,  there  was  a  loud 
report  which  shook  the  houses  at  Portici  and  its  neighbour- 
hood, to  such  a  degree  as  to  alarm  the  inhabitants  and  drive 
them  out  into  the  streets ;  and,  as  I  have  since  seen,  many 
windows  were  broken,  and  walls  cracked  by  the  concussion 
of  the  air  from  that  explosion,  though  faintly  heard  at  Naples. 
In  an  instant,  a  fountain  of  liquid  transparent  fire  began  to 
rise,  and  gradually  increasing,  arrived  at  so  amazing  a  height 
as  to  strike  every  one  who  beheld  it  with  the  most  awful 
astonishment.  I  shall  scarcely  be  credited,  when  I  assert 
that,  to  the  best  of  my  judgment,  the  height  of  this  stupen- 
dous column  of  fire  could  not  be  less  than  three  times  that  of 
Vesuvius  itself,  which  rises  3700  feet  perpendicular  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

"  Puffs  of  smoke,  as  black  as  can  possibly  be  imagined, 
succeeded  one  another  hastily,  and  accompanied  the  red,  trans- 
parent, and  liquid  lava,  intercepting  its  splendid  brightness 
here  and  there  by  patches  of  the  darkest  hue.  Within  these 
puffs  of  smoke,  at  the  very  moment  of  their  emission  from 


HISTORY  OF  VESUVIUS. 


23 


the  crater,  I  could  perceive  a  bright,  but  pale  electrical  fire, 
briskly  playing  about  in  zig-zag  lines.  The  wind  was  S.W., 
and  though  gentle,  sufficient  to  carry  these  detached  clouds 
or  puflfs  of  smoke  out  of  the  column  of  fire,  and  a  collection 
of  them  by  degrees  formed  a  black  and  extensive  curtain,  if  I 
may  be  allowed  the  expression,  behind  it ;  in  other  parts  of 
the  sky  it  was  quite  clear,  and  the  stars  were  bright.  The 
fiery  fountain  of  so  gigantic  a  size  upon  the  dark  groimd 
above  mentioned  made  the  most  glorious  contrast  imagin- 
able, and  the  blaze  of  it  reflecting  strongly  upon  the  surface 
of  the  sea,  which  was  at  that  time  perfectly  smooth,  added 
greatly  to  this  sublime  view.  The  liquid  lava,  mixed  with 
stones  and  scoriae,  after  having  mounted,  I  verily  believe,  at 
the  least  10,000  feet,  was  partly  directed  by  the  wind  towards 
Ottaiano,  and  partly  falling  almost  perpendicularly,  still  red- 
hot  and  liquid  on  Vesuvius,  covered  its  whole  cone,  part  of 
the  mountain  of  Somma,  and  the  valley  between  them.  The 
falling  matter  being  nearly  as  vivid  and  inflamed  as  tliat 
which  was  continually  issuing  fresh  from  the  crater,  formed 
with  it  one  complete  body  of  fire,  which  could  not  be  less 
than  two  miles  and  a  half  in  breadth,  and  of  the  extra- 
ordinary height  abovementioned,  casting  a  heat  to  the  dis- 
tance of  at  least  six  miles  around  it.  The  brushwood  on  the 
mountain  of  Somma  was  soon  in  a  blaze,  which  flame  being 
of  a  different  tint  from  the  deep  red  of  the  matter  thrown 
out  by  the  volcano,  and  from  the  silvery  blue  of  the  electrical 
fire,  still  added  to  the  contrast  of  this  most  extraordinary 
scene." 

Another  remarkable  eruption  occurred  in  1793,  while  the 
late  Dr.  Clarke  was  at  Naples,  and  gave  him  the  opportunity 
of  making  minute  and  repeated  observations  on  the  mountain. 
No  pen  is  better  calculated  to  explain  these  great  operations 
of  nature,  and  to  describe  their  awful  magnificence.  We 
shall  extract  a  passage  of  some  length  from  his  journal,  illus- 
trative chiefly  of  those  phenomena  which  we  have  not  yet 
noticed. 

"  It  was  in  the  month  of  February  that  I  went  with  a 
party  to  the  source  of  the  lava  for  the  first  time,  to  ascertain 
the  real  state  in  which  the  lava  proceeded  from  the  volcano 
that  created  it.  1  found  the  crater  in  a  very  active  state, 
throwing  out  volleys  of  immense  stones  transparent  with 


24 


POMPEII. 


vitrificjxtion,  and  sucli  sliowers  of  ashes  involved  in  thick  svil- 
phureous  clouds  as  rendered  any  approach  to  it  extremely 
dangerous.  We  ascended  as  near  as  possible,  and  then  cross- 
ing over  to  the  lava,  attempted  to  coast  it  up  to  its  source. 
This  we  soon  found  was  impossible,  for  an  unfortunate  wind 
blew  all  the  smoke  of  the  lava  hot  upon  us,  attended  at  the 
same  time  with  such  a  thick  mist  of  minute  ashes  from  the 
crater,  and  such  fumes  of  sulphur,  that  we  were  in  danger  of 
being  suffocated.  In  this  perplexity  I  had  recourse  to  an 
expedient  recommended  by  Sir  W.  Hamilton,  and  proposed 
immediately  crossing  the  current  of  liquid  lava  to  gain  the 
windward  side,  but  felt  some  fears,  owing  to  the  very  liquid 
appearance  the  lava  there  had  so  near  its  source.  All  my 
companions  were  against  the  scheme ;  and  while  we  stood 
deliberating,  immense  fragments  of  stone  and  huge  volcanic 
bombs,  that  had  been  cast  out  by  the  crater,  but  which  the 
smoke  had  prevented  us  from  observing,  fell  thick  about  us, 
and  rolled  by  us  vdth  a  velocity  that  would  have  crushed  any 
of  us  had  we  been  in  their  way.  I  found  we  must  either 
leave  our  present  spot  or  expect  instant  death  ;  therefore 
covering  my  face  with  my  hat  I  rushed  upon  the  lava,  and 
crossed  safely  over  to  the  other  side,  having  my  boots  only  a 
little  burnt,  and  my  hands  scorched.  Having  once  more 
rallied  my  forces,  I  proceeded  on,  and  in  about  half  an  hour 
gained  the  chasm  through  which  the  lava  had  opened  itself  a 
passage  out  of  the  mountain.  To  describe  this  sight  is 
utterly  beyond  all  human  ability.  My  companions  shared  in 
the  astonishment  it  produced ;  and  the  sensations  they  felt, 
in  concert  with  me,  were  such  as  can  be  obliterated  only  with 
our  lives.  All  I  had  seen  of  volcanic  phenomena  before  did 
not  lead  me  to  expect  such  a  spectacle  as  I  then  beheld.  I 
had  seen  the  vast  rivers  of  lava  that  descended  into  the  plains 
below,  and  carried  ruin  and  devastation  with  them ;  but  they 
resembled  a  vast  heap  of  cinders,  or  t1ie  scoriae  of  an  iron 
foundry,  rolling  slowly  along,  and  falling  with  a  rattling 
noise  over  one  another.  Here  a  vast  arched  chasm  presented 
itself  in  the  side  of  the  mountain,  from  which  rushed  with 
the  velocity  of  a  flood  the  clear  vivid  torrent  of  lava,  in  per- 
fect fusion,  and  totally  rmconnected  with  any  other  matter  that 
was  not  in  a  state  of  complete  solution,  unattended  with  any 
scorice  on  its  surface,  or  gross  materials  of  an  insolvent 


HISTOEY  OF  VESUVIUS. 


25 


nature,  but  flowing  with  the  translucency  of  honey,  in  regular 
channels  cut  finer  than  art  can  imitate,  and  glowing  with 
all  the  splendour  of  the  sun. 

"  The  eruption  from  the  crater  increased  with  so  much 
violence  that  we  proceeded  to  make  our  experiments  and 
observations  as  speedily  as  possible.  A  little  above  the 
source  of  the  lava  I  found  a  chimney  of  about  four  feet  in 
height,  from  which  proceeded  smoke,  and  sometimes  stones. 
I  approached  and  gathered  some  pure  sulphur,  which  had 
formed  itself  upon  the  edges  of  the  mouth  of  this  chimney, 
the  smell  of  which  was  so  powerful  that  I  was  forced  to  hold 
my  breath  all  the  while  I  remained  there.  I  seized  an 
opportunity  to  gain  a  momentary  view  down  this  aperture, 
and  perceived  nothing  but  the  glare  of  the  red-hot  lava  that 
passed  beneath  it.  We  then  returned  to  examine  the  lava  at 
its  source.  Sir  W.  Hamilton  had  conceived  that  no  stones 
thrown  upon  a  current  of  lava  would  make  any  impression. 
We  were  soon  convinced  of  the  contrary.  Light  bodies  of 
five,  ten,  and  fifteen  pounds  weight,  made  little  or  no  impres- 
sion even  at  the  source ;  but  bodies  of  sixty,  seventy,  and 
eighty  pounds  were  seen  to  form  a  kind  of  bed  on  the 
surface  of  the  lava,  and  float  away  with  it.  A  stone  of  three 
hundredweight,  that  had  been  thrown  out  by  the  crater,  lay 
near  the  source  of  the  current  of  lava.  I  raised  it  upon  one 
end,  and  then  let  it  fall  in  upon  the  liquid  lava,  when  it 
gradually  sunk  beneath  the  surface  and  disappeared.  If  I 
wished  to  describe  the  manner  in  which  it  acted  upon  the 
lava,  I  should  say  it  was  like  a  loaf  of  bread  thrown  into  a 
bowl  of  very  thick  honey,  which  gradually  involves  itself  in 
the  heavy  liquid  wdiich  surrounds  it,  and  then  slowly  sinks 
to  the  bottom.  The  lava  itself  had  a  glutinous  appearance, 
and  although  it  resisted  the  most  violent  impression,  seemed 
as  if  it  might  easily  be  stirred  with  a  common  w^alking- 
stick.  A  small  distance  from  its  source,  as  it  flows  on,  it 
acquires  a  darker  tint  upon  its  surface,  is  less  easily  acted 
upon,  and  as  the  stream  gets  Avidcr,  the  surface  having  lost 
its  state  of  perfect  solution,  grows  harder  and  harder,  and 
cracks  into  innumerable  fragments  of  very  porous  matter,  to 
which  they  give  the  name  of  scoriae,  and  the  appearance  of 
which  has  led  many  to  suppose  that  it  proceeded  thus  from 
the  mountain ;  itself  being  composed  of  materials  less  soluble 


26 


POMPEII. 


than  tlie  rest  of  tlie  lava,  lighter,  and  of  course  liable  tr.  float 
continually  on  the  surface.'  There  is,  however,  no  truth  in 
this.  All  lava  at  its  first  exit  from  its  native  volcano  flows 
out  in  a  liquid  state,  and  all  equally  in  fusion.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  scoriae  is  to  be  attributed  only  to  the  action  of  the 
external  air,  and  not  to  any  difference  of  the  materials  which 
compose  it,  since  any  lava  whatever,  separated  from  its 
channel  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  external  air,  imme- 
diately cracks,  becomes  porous,  and  alters  its  form.  As  we 
proceeded  downward  this  became  more  and  more  evident, 
and  the  same  lava,  which  at  its  original  source  flowed  in  per- 
fect solution,  undivided.,  and  free  from  encumbrances  of  any 
kind,  a  little  farther  down  had  its  surface  loaded  ^^ith 
scoriae  in  such  a  manner,  that  upon  its  arrival  at  the  bottom 
of  the  mountain  the  whole  current  resembled  nothing  so 
much  as  a  heap  of  unconnected  cinders  from  an  iron- 
foundry. 

"  Aug.  22,  1793.— There  was  to-day  a  most  singular  ap- 
pearance in  the  mountain.  On  opening  the  shutters  to  view 
it,  I  perceived  the  crater  to  be  in  great  agitation,  puff  after 
puff  impelling  each  other  with  the  greatest  violence.  I  could 
perceive  thousands  of  stones  and  scoriae  thrown  into  the  air, 
and  falling  in  all  directions.  The  clouds  from  the  crater 
were  as  white  as  the  purest  snow ;  on  a  sudden,  as  I  was 
looking  at  these,  a  column  of  smoke  rushed  impetuously  out 
of  another  mouth  behind  the  crater,  as  black  as  the  deepest 
ink;  and  rising  in  curling  volumes  to  a  vast  magnitude, 
formed  a  pillar  perfectly  unconnected  with  the  smoke  from 
the  crater,  and  presented  a  striking  contrast  by  opposing  its 
jet  black  to  the  snowy  whiteness  of  the  other.  These  ap- 
pearances continued  at  intervals  the  whole  day.  Sometimes 
the  two  columns  of  different  colours  rose  together,  as  if 
emulating  each  other,  and  striving  which  should  rise  the 
highest  or  display  the  greatest  magnitude,  but  never  mixing 
or  interfering  with  each  other.  .  .  . 

"  Aug.  30. — The  lava,  which  was  last  night  so  great,  this 
evening  suddenly  stopped ;  hardly  a  trace  of  it  was  visible. 
But  the  crater  displayed  SLich  girandoles  of  fire,  such  beauti- 
ful columns  of  light  red  flame,  as  I  think  I  never  saw  before. 
Millions  of  red-hot  stones  were  shot  into  the  air,  full  half  the 
height  of  the  cone  itself,  and  then  bending,  fell  all  round  in  a 


HISTOEY  OF  VESUVIUS. 


27 


fine  arch.  As  soon  as  I  got  home  I  fixed  the  telescope. 
Sometimes,  in  the  middle  of  the  clear  flame,  another  and 
another  still  more  bright  and  glorious  displayed  itself,  break- 
ing on  the  eye  like  the  full  sun,  so  that  the  interior  was 
always  the  mxost  luminous.  The  interior  and  bright  attend- 
ants upon  the  principal  column  seemed  to  be  lava  in  perfect 
fusion,  which  boiled  and  bubbled  up  above  the  crater's  edge ; 
and  sometimes  falling  over  it,  I  could  perceive  splash  upon 
the  cone,  and  take  its  course  gently  down  the  side  of  the 
mountain.  Sometimes,  and  more  usually,  it  fell  again  into 
the  crater.  I  write  this  with  the  burning  mountain  now 
before  my  eyes.  All  the  top  of  the  cone  is  covered  with  red- 
hot  stones  and  lava.  The  flame  of  the  crater  continues 
without  intervals  of  darkness,  as  usual.  It  is  always  in 
flame,  or  rather  the  clouds  of  smoke,  tinged  with  the  boiling 
matter  within,  are  like  burnished  gold,  and  as  bright  as  fire. 

"  Sept.  5. — Vesuvius  continues  to  throw  most  superbly ; 
the  lava  flows  again.  At  sunset  he  showed  that  Tyrian  hue 
which  he  assumes  sometimes,  and  which  has  a  glow  l)eyond 
description.  I  had  undressed  myself  and  was  prepared  to 
get  into  bed,  when  a  violent  shock  from  the  mountain  agi- 
tated the  door  of  my  room,  so  as  to  startle  me  not  a  little. 
I  went  into  my  sitting-room,  and,  upon  opening  the  window 
toward  the  mountain,  I  perceived  all  the  top  of  the  cone 
covered  with  red-hot  matter.  At  the  same  time  such  a  roar- 
ing was  heard  as  made  me  expect  something  more  than 
common.  In  an  instant  a  column  of  lucid  fire  shot  up  into 
the  air,  and  after  ascending  above  half  the  height  of  the  cone 
itself,  fell  in  a  glorious  parabolic  girandole,  and  covered  near 
half  the  cone  with  fire.  This  was  followed,  after  an  interval 
of  about  thirty  seconds,  by  a  shock  which  agitated  the  doors 
and  windows,  and  indeed  the  whole  house  in  a  most  violent 
manner.  Immediately  after  this  shock  the  sound  of  the  ex- 
plosion reached  us  louder  than  the  greatest  cannon,  or  the 
most  terrible  thunder,  attended  with  a  noise  like  the 
trampling  of  horses'  feet,  which,  of  course,  was  nothing 
more  than  the  noise  occasioned  by  the  falling  of  so  many 
enormous  stones  among  the  hard  lava.  The  shock  of  this 
explosion  was  so  violent  that  it  disturbed  many  things  I  had 
left  on  my  table,  such  as  brushes  for  painting,  &c.  I  dressed 
myself  again,  and  remained  in  the  balcony  above  an  hour, 


28 


POMPEII. 


during  wliicli  time  I  liad  tlie  pleasure  of  beholding  Vesuvius 
in  his  terrific  grandeur,  and  more  awfully  sublime  than  I  had 
ever  before  seen  him.  The  consul.  Sir  James  Douglas,  h^s 
just  been  observing  to  me  that  he  never  saw  the  mountain  so 
agitated  since  the  great  eruption  of  1779."  * 

Betw^een  the  end  of  the  18th  century  and  the  year  1822, 
the  crater  of  Vesuvius  Lad  been  gradually  filled  by  the  boil- 
ing up  of  lava  and  the  crumbling  down  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  cone.  In  place,  therefore,  of  a  regular  cavity,  was  a 
rough  and  rocky  surface  covered  with  blocks  of  lava  and 
scoriae.  But  this  state  of  things  was  totally  changed  by  the 
eruption  of  October,  1822,  v/hen  the  w^hole  accumulated  mass 
within  the  crater,  together  wath  a  large  part  of  the  cone  itself, 
was  blo'^Ti  out,  so  as  to  leave  an  irregular  gulf  about  three 
miles  in  circumference,  when  measured  along  the  winding 
edge  of  its  margin,  but  somewhat  less  than  three-quarters  of 
a  mile  in  its  largest  diameter.  The  depth  has  been  variously 
estimated,  from  2000  feet  to  less  than  half  that  quantity. 
More  than  eight  hundred  feet  of  the  cone  was  carried  away 
during  the  eruption,  so  that  the  mountain  w^as  reduced  in 
height  from  about  4200  to  3400  feet,  t 

Vesuvius  now  consists  of  a  double  mountain,  upon  an  ex- 
tended base,  from  thirty  to  forty  miles  in  circumference. 
Upon  this  stands  the  long  ridge  of  Somma,  so  often  men- 
tioned, bending  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  wdth  its  convex 
side  presented  to  the  N.E.,  its  points  to  the  S.W.  The 
western  horn  is  separated  by  a  deep  valley  from  a  lower 
mountain,  called  Cantaroni,  which,  inclining  to  the  south, 
meets  the  lower  projection,  or  terrace,  called  La  Pedamen- 
tina.  This  is  again  separated  by  an  excavated  valley  from 
the  eastern  horn  of  Somma.  Between  Somma  and  Vesuvius 
is  the  deep  valley,  called  Atrio  de'  Cavalli.  the  Hall  of 
Horses,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  am23hitheatre  rises  the  cone 

*  Life  of  E.  D.  Clarke. 

t  There  have  been  several  eruptions  since  that  of  1822.  The  last,  and  per- 
haps the  most  remai  kable,  of  these  occurred  towards  the  end  of  1861.  It  was 
preceded  by  shocks  of  earthquake,  which  overthrew  or  damaged  several  houses 
in  Torre  del  Greco.  The  editor  visited  that  place  a  month  or  two  afterwards, 
and  found  some  of  the  wells  there  still  boiling ;  while  at  a  little  distance  from 
the  shore  a  sort  of  fountain  was  thrown  up  in  the  sea  by  volcanic  agency.  On 
this  occasion  ashes  were  ejected  fjom  several  small  cones  situated  less  than 
half  a  mile  from  the  town. 


HISTOEY  OF  VESUVIUS. 


29 


of  Vesuvius  itself,  dark,  sterile,  and  desolate  ;  to  the  eye,  a 
mass  of  loose  scoriae  and  aslies,  without  order  or  coherence. 
This  however  on  inspection  is  proved  not  to  be  the  case.  It 
consists  of  alternate  layers  of  sand  or  ashes,  scoriaB,  and  lava, 
inclining  outwards  at  an  angle  of  from  45"^  to  30"^  with  the 
axis  of  the  cone.  The  strata  of  course  are  partial  and  irregu- 
lar in  extent  and  thickness,  as  circumstances  have  determined 
the  fall  of  the  ejected  matter  or  the  flow  of  the  lava ;  but  the 
irregularities  of  these  numerous  beds  comi^ensate  for  each 
other,  and  the  general  effect,  on  viewing  the  interior  of  the 
crater,  is  one  of  considerable  order  and  regularity.  Even 
the  loose  substances,  falling  together  half  melted,  and  con- 
tinually acted  on  by  the  hot  vapours  which  steam  uj) wards  in 
all  parts  of  the  cone,  soon  acquire  a  considerable  degree  of 
coherence ;  and  the  solidity  of  the  whole  is  mainly  assisted 
by  dykes  of  solid  lava,  injected  into  the  cracks  of  the  moun- 
tain when  the  molten  liquid  has  boiled  up  to  its  summit. 


CHAPTEE  II. 

HISTOniCAL  NOTICE  OF  POMPEII. 

Pompeii  is  situated  in  that  district  of  Italy  named  by  the 
ancients  Campania,  comprised  between  the  mountains  of 
Sanmium  and  the  Tyrrhenian  sea,  and  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  river  Liris,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Silarus.  The 
line  of  coast  included  between  these  points  is  broken  by  two 
far-projecting  capes,  Misenum  and  the  promontory  of  Mi- 
nerva, between  which  lies  a  deep  recess,  called  from  its  shape 
Crater,  the  Cup,  or  the  Gulf  of  Cumoc,  and  known  in  modern 
times  as  the  Bay  of  Naples.  At  the  bottom  of  this  bay  stood 
Pompeii,  about  thirteen  miles  south-east  of  Naples,  and  five 
from  Vesuvius.  Of  its  history  very  little  is  known.  It  is 
related  to  have  been  founded  by  Hercules,  as  well  as  its 
neighbour  and  fellow-victim,  Herculancum.  Solinus  says 
that  the  name  of  Pompeii  is  derived  from  Pompe,  in  allusion 
to  the  pomp  with  which  Hercules  celebrated  his  victories, 
while  awaiting  his  fleet  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Sarnus. 
Being  furnished  with  so  respectable  and  credible  an  origin, 


30 


POMPEII. 


it  would  be  waste  of  time  to  inquire  any  further.  An  almost 
impenetrable  darkness  hangs  over  these  remote  ages ;  and 
when  men  are  driven  to  take  refuge  in  mythology,  it  is  plain 


Bay  of  Naples. 


that  they  can  find  little  satisfaction  in  history.  Strabo,  how- 
ever, asserts  that  these  towns  were  founded  by  Pelasgians 
and  Tyrrhenians^.  The  first  inhabitants  that  we  can  trace 
on  this  coast  are  the  Osci,  who  appear  to  have  been  the  same 
as  the  Ausones,  and  of  Pelasgian  extraction.  At  an  early, 
but  still  an  unknown  period,  a  colony  from  Chalcis  in  Euboea 
founded  the  town  of  Cumas.  Parthenope,  afterwards  called 
Neapolis,  now  Naples,  was  an  ofiset  from  thence,  or  from  a 
kindred  colony  of  Eretrians.  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum 
also  fell  into  their  power,  but  their  establishments  seem  to 
have  extended  no  further  in  this  direction. 

Campania,  where,  in  Pliny's  words,  all  imaginable  delights 
were  in  constant  rivalry,  has  always  been  celebrated  as  tempt- 
*  Lib.  y.  c.  4,  §  8. 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


31 


iug  by  its  riches  the  arms  of  strangers,  and  punishing  the 
cupidity  of  its  conquerors  by  enervating,  and  subjecting  them 
in  their  turn  to  some  sterner  enemy ;  in  consequence,  it  has 
experienced  a  raj)id  succession  of  masters. 

According  to  Strabo,  in  the  passage  abeady  quoted,  Pom- 
peii was  first  occupied  by  the  Oscans,  then  hj  the  Tyrrhe- 
nians, or  Etruscans,  and  next  by  the  Samnites,  who,  about  the 
year  B.C.  440,  or  a  little  after,  conquered  Campania  ;  and  the 
branch  of  that  nation  settled  there  subsequently  assumed  the 
name  of  Campanians.  The  cities  of  Campania  appear  to  have 
been  independent.  There  is  no  trace  of  a  central  govern- 
ment. Capua  was  no  doubt  the  chief  city,  but  we  hear  only 
of  local  governments  of  a  republican  form,  called  in  Oscan, 
meddix,  in  which  the  chief  magistrate  was  entitled  meddix 
tuticus. 

The  first  direct  notice  of  Pompeii  which  we  find  in  history 
is  in  B.C.  310,  when,  during  the  second  Samnite  war,  a  Eoman 
fleet  under  P.  Cornelius  entered  the  mouth  of  the  Sarnus. 
The  crews  proceeded  up  that  river  as  far  as  Nuccria,  and 
ravaged  the  country  around,  but  were  ultimately  driven  back 
with  great  loss.*  How  long  Pompeii  had  existed  before  that 
date  it  is  impossible  to  say  ;  but,  as  Overbeck  remarks.f  the 
remains  of  some  parts  of  its  walls,  as  well  as  of  the  Greek 
temple  in  the  Forum  Triangulare,  commonly  called  the  Tem- 
ple of  Hercules,  seem  to  denote  a  period  coeval  with  that 
of  Paestum,  or  the  seventh  century  b.c. 

When  the  Eomans  reduced  the  Samnites,  towards  the  end 
of  the  third  century  B.C.,  the  cities  of  the  districts  occupied 
by  that  people,  and  amongst  them  those  of  Campania,  a})2)car 
to  have  received  a  municipal  constitution.  Under  this  new 
state  of  things,  Pomj)eii,  as  may  be  inferred  from  inscriptions, 
&c.,  seems  to  have  retained  many  of  its  ancient  Oscan  cus- 
toms, as  well  as  the  Oscan  tongue.  It  was  an  independent 
municipium,  with  a  senate  and  assembly  of  the  j^eople,  and 
magistrates  chosen  by  them,  among  whom  the  principal  were 
Quatuorviri.  Pompeii  no  doubt  imrticipated  in  the  Campa- 
nian  revolt,  B.C.  216,  in  the  second  Punic  war.  and  joined 
Hannibal,  who  proposed  to  make  Capua  the  capital  of  Italy. 
His  long  stay  in  this  delightful  climate  proved  fatal  to  the 
discipline  even  of  his  victorious  troops,  and  when  he  was 
*  Liv.  ix.  38.  t  Pompeji,^^.  i.  S.  IG. 


82 


POMPEII. 


compelled  to  abandon  Italy  the  incensed  Komans  took  a  ter- 
rible revenge  on  their  revolted  subjects.  Capua,  we  know, 
was  severely  punished ;  but  neitlier  on  this  occasion,  nor  on 
their  lirst  occupation  of  the  country,  is  mention  made  of 
Herculaneum  or  Pompeii. 

In  the  Social,  or  Marsic  war,  which  broke  out  in  B.C.  91, 
the  Campanian  cities  raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  The 
Pompeians  appear  to  have  played  a  principal  part  on  this 
occasion,  as  Apj)ian  makes  particular  mention  of  them  in 
enumerating  the  nations  which  joined  the  insurrection.*  In 
the  second  year  of  the  war,  L.  Sulla  having  defeated  the  Sam- 
nit  es  under  Cluentius,  and  driven  them  into  Nola,  laid  siege 
to  Pompeii."!*  We  have  no  particulars  of  this  siege,  but 
many  refer  to  it  the  dilapidated  state  in  which  the  walls  of 
Pompeii  have  been  discovered,  whilst  others  attribute  those 
appearances  to  the  earthquake  which  preceded  the  eruption 
by  which  the  city  was  destroyed.  At  the  end  of  the  war 
Capua  was  severely  punished,  its  inhabitants  being  dis- 
possessed, and  a  colony  sent  from  Pome  to  cultivate  their 
fertile  territory.  Stabile,  a  town  A\ithin  four  or  five  miles  of 
Pompeii,  was  entirely  destroyed,  and  scattered  villas  built 
where  it  formerly  stood.  We  know  not  by  what  means  Pom- 
pt)ii  not  only  escaped  this  fate,  but  even  obtained  the  Eoman 
franchise,  which  was  probably  granted  by  virtue  of  a  capitu- 
lation. A  military  colony  w^as  however  established  there  by 
Sulla,  which,  from  the  patron  goddess  of  the  city,  and  from 
Sulla,  who  had  subdued  it,  obtained  the  names  of  Coloxia 
Yeneria  Cornelia. J  Subsequently  we  find  this  colony  under 
the  government  of  the  dictator's  nephew,  P.  Sylla,  who,  in 
B.C.  64,  was  accused  of  exciting  troubles  in  it,  and  urging  it 
to  revolt  from  Eome.  On  this  occasion  Sylla  was  defended 
by  Cicero,  and  ultimately  acquitted  .§ 

After  the  establishment  of  Sulla's  colony,  Pompeii,  like 
Bai^e,  Puteoli,  and  other  towns  in  that  delightful  neighbour- 
hood, became  a  favourite  resort  of  the  wealthy  Eomans. 
Among  these  was  Cicero,  who  mentions  his  villa  at  Pompeii.  |j 
After  this  period,  the  Oscan  tongue,  as  well  as  the  Oscan 
magistrates,  were  supplanted  by  Eoman.    Under  the  empire 

*  App.  j5.(7.,  i.  39.  t  Veil.  Pat.  ii.  IG,  App.  B.C.  i.  50. 

X  Momrasen,  Inscrr,  B.N,,  No.  2201.         §  Cic.  Pro.  Sulla, 
II  Cic.  Epp.  ad  dir.,  vii.  1. 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


33 


we  find  two  principal  classes  of  citizens :  decurions,  who 
answered  to  the  Eoman  senate,  and  Augustales,  or  priests  of 
Augustus,  whose  rank  was  somewhat  equivalent  to  that  of  the 
Roman  equites.  There  was  besides  a  popular  body,  who,  in 
their  comitia,  or  assemblies,  choFO  their  own  magistrates, 
regulated  their  own  worship  and  priesthood,  made  munici- 
pal laws,  and  conferred  rewards  and  distinctions.  The  heads 
of  the  government  and  supreme  administrators  of  the  law 
were  the  Decemviri  juri  dicundo,  who  presided  at  the  assem- 
blies of  the  Deciirions,  or  senate,  and  resembled,  in  their  way, 
the  Roman  consuls.  Below  these  were  ^diles,  Quinquennales, 
or  censors,  a  Quaestor,  and  other  inferior  magistrates.  The 
imperial  power  seems  sometimes  to  have  been  represented  by 
officers  called  Curatores,  whose  title  is  occasionally  met  wdth 
in  inscriptions.  We  should  remember  that  there  was  always 
a  considerable  Greek  population  in  the  city. 

From  this  time  forward  Pompeii  shared  the  common  for- 
tune of  the  emj)ire,  and  there  is  little  remarkable  to  be 
related  of  it.  Tacitus  calls  it  a  "  populous  "  town  of  Campa- 
nia ;*  but  there  is  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  number  of 
its  population,  which  has  been  variously  estimated  at  from 
20,000  to  40,000.  Augustus  sent  thither  some  Roman  colo- 
nists in  B.C.  7,  who  established  themselves  in  the  northern 
suburb  outside  the  gate  of  Herculaneum.  This  settlement 
obtained  the  name  of  Pagus  Augustus  Felix.  We  learn  from 
an  anecdote  in  Suetonius  that  the  emperor  Claudius  had  a 
villa  at  Pompeii,  whose  little  son  was  choked  here  by  throw- 
ing up  a  pear  and  catching  it  in  his  mouth. |  In  the  year 
59,  Pompeii  was  made  to  feel  its  dej)endenco  upon  Rome. 
The  senator,  Livineius  Regulus,  who,  after  having  been 
banished  from  the  Roman  capital,  appears  to  Lave  fixed  his 
abode  at  Pompeii,  gave  in  the  amphitheatre  of  that  place 
some  grand  gladiatorial  shows,  which  were  attended  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  towns.  During  this  exhibi- 
tion, a  quarrel,  which  originated  in  certain  provincial  sar- 
casms, arose  between  the  Pompeians  and  the  people  of 
Nuceria.  The  dispute  terminated  in  a  battle,  and  the 
Nucerians  were  worsted.  Not  prospering  in  the  vole  du  fait, 
they  went  to  law,  and  carried  their  complaint  before  the 


*  '*  Celebve  Campuniaj  oppidiim.''  Ann.  xxv.  2. 


t  Suet.  Claud.  27. 
D 


34 


POMPEII. 


Emperor  Nero,  wlio  finally  adjudged  that,  among  other 
things,  the  Pompeians  should  be  suspended  from  all  theatri- 
cal amusements  for  ten  years  :*  a  sentence  which,  according 
to  modern  ideas,  we  can  hardly  believe  to  be  serious,  but 
which  certainly  was  both  meant  and  felt  to  be  so,  and  which 
bears  strong  testimony  to  the  importance  attached  by  the 
Eomans  to  all  public  amusements. 

Upon  the  external  walls  of  a  house  in  the  street  of  Mer- 
cury, as  it  is  called,  near  the  city  wall,  was  found  a  carica- 
ture or  rude  drawing  scratched  on  the  plaster  with  a  sharp- 
pointed  instrument  by  some  patriotic  Pompeian,  in  comme- 
moration of  this  squabble  and  the  victory  of  his  townspeople. 
We  give  a  fac-simile  of  it.  It  seems  to  be  a  joint  production ; 
for  the  armed  figure  descending  the  steps  is  evidently  the 
work  of  a  more  skilful  hand  than  that  which  drew  the  other 
two  figures,  if  they  deserve  that  term.  The  figure  on  the 
right  seems  to  be  meant  for  a  gladiator,  cased  in  armour, 
descending  the  steps  of  the  amphitheatre,  bearing  in  his  left 
hand  a  shield,  and  in  his  right  a  palm-branch,  the  token  of 
victory.  It  is  observable  that  his  helmet  has  a  complete 
visor,  and  apparently  resembles  the  helmet  of  the  middle 
ages  much  more  than  the  usual  form  of  the  Eoman  helmet. 
The  abortive  figures  on  tlie  left  probably  represent  one  of 
the  victors  on  some  elevated  spot,  dragging  a  prisoner,  with 
his  arms  bound,  after  him  up  the  ladder  which  leads  to  it.  It 
might  not  have  been  very  easy  to  decipher  all  this  ;  but  like 
the  sign-painter  who  found  it  necessary  to  write  under  his 
production,  "This  is  a  bear!"  the  artist  or  artists  have 
thought  it  prudent  to  subjoin  the  following  inscription, 
which,  in  point  of  Latin,  is  much  on  a  par  with  the  draw- 
ing :— 

Campani  victoria  una  cum  Nucerinis  peristis; 

which  may  be  interpreted,  "  Campanians,  you  perished  in 
victory  together  with  the  Nucerians." 

Four  years  after  this  occurrence,  an  earthquake,  which 
took  place  on  the  5th  February,  a.d.  63,  and  has  been 
recorded  by  Seneca,  threw  down  a  great  part  of  Pompeii,  and 
considerably  injured  Herculanemn  and  other  towns.  "A 


*  Tac.  Ann.  x'w.  17. 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


35 


flock,"  he  says,  *'of  six  hundred  sheep  were  swallowed  up, 
statues  were  split,  and  many  persons  lost  their  reason/"* 


The  following  year  another  earthquake  took  place  whilst 

*  Sen.  Q..Y.,vi.  l,o£Tac.  Ann.  xv.  22. 


36 


POMPEII. 


Nero  was  singing  at  Naples ;  the  building,  unfortunately, 
fell  immediately  after  the  emperor  had  left  it.  Vestiges  of 
the  injury  done  by  these  shocks  may  even  now  be  seen  in  the 
houses  which  have  been  excavated  at  Pompeii,  where  the 
mosaic  floors  are  often  much  out  of  their  level,  twisted  and 
broken,  and  show  the  repairs  which  had  been  made  by  the 
inhabitants  themselves. 

These  alarms,  the  usual  presages  of  a  near  eruption,  were 
from  time  to  time  repeated  until  the  23rd  of  August,  a.d.  79, 
the  day  on  which,  after  a  cessation  of  ages,  the  first  recorded 
volcanic  paroxysm  of  Vesuvius  occurred. 

By  an  unusual  good  fortune  we  are  in  possession  of  a  faith- 
ful narrative,  furnished  by  an  eye-witness  of  the  catastrophe 
which  overwhelmed  Pompeii,  and  provided  a  subject  for  this 
volume.  It  is  contained  in  two  letters  of  Pliny  the  younger 
to  Tacitus,  which  record  the  death  of  his  uncle,  who  fell  a 
victim  to  his  inquiring  spirit  and  humanity. 

"  Your  request  that  I  would  send  you  an  account  of  my 
uncle's  death,  in  order  to  transmit  a  more  exact  relation  of 
it  to  posterity,  deserves  my  acknowledgments  ;  for,  if  this  ac- 
cident shall  be  celebrated  by  your  pen,  the  glory  of  it,  I 
am  well  assured,  wdll  be  rendered  for  ever  illustrious.  And 
notwithstanding  he  perished  by  a  misfortune,  which,  as  it 
involved  at  the  same  time  a  most  beautiful  country  in  ruins, 
and  destroyed  so  many  populous  cities,  seems  to  promise  him 
an  everlasting  remembrance,  notwithstanding  he  has  himself 
composed  many  and  lasting  works ;  yet  I  am  persuaded  the 
mentioning  of  him  in  your  immortal  works  will  greatly  con- 
tribute to  eternize  his  name.  Hapj)y  I  esteem  those  to  be 
whom  Providence  has  distinguished  with  the  abilities  either 
of  doing  such  actions  as  are  worthy  of  being  related,  or  of 
relating  them  in  a  manner  worthy  of  being  read ;  but  doubly 
happy  are  they  who  are  blessed  with  both  these  uncommon 
talents — in  the  number  of  which  my  uncle,  as  his  own  writ- 
ings and  your  history  wdll  evidently  prove,  may  justly  bo 
ranked.  It  is  with  extreme  willingness,  therefore,  I  execute 
your  commands  ;  and  should  indeed  have  claimed  the  task 
if  you  had  not  enjoined  it.  He  was  at  that  time  with  the 
fleet  under  his  command  at  Misenum.  On  the  24th  of 
August,  about  one  in  the  afternoon,  my  mother  desired  him 
to  observe  a  cloud  which  appeared  of  a  very  unusual  size  and 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


37 


shape.  He  had  just  returned  from  taking  the  benefit  of  the 
sun,*  and  after  bathing  himself  in  cold  water,  and  faking  a 
slight  repast,  was  retired  to  his  study.  He  immediately 
arose  and  went  out  upon  an  eminence,  from  whence  he  might 
more  distinctly  view  this  very  uncommon  appearance.  It 
was  not  at  that  distance  discernible  from  what  mountain  this 
cloud  issued,  but  it  was  found  afterwards  to  ascend  from 
Mount  Vesuvius.!  I  cannot  give  a  more  exact  description 
of  its  figure  than  by  resembling  it  to  that  of  a  pine-tree,  for 
it  shot  up  a  great  height  in  the  form  of  a  trunk,  which  ex- 
tended itself  at  the  top  into  a  sort  of  branches,  occasioned,  I 
imagine,  either  by  a  sudden  gust  of  air  that  impelled  it,  the 
force  of  which  decreased  as  it  advanced  u]:)wards,  or  the  cloud 
itself,  being  pressed  back  again  by  its  own  weight,  expanded 
in  this  manner  :  it  appeared  sometimes  bright  and  sometimes 
dark  and  spotted,  as  it  was  more  or  less  impregnated  with 
earth  and  cinders.  This  extraordinary  ])hcnomenon  excited 
my  uncle's  philosophical  curiosity  to  take  a  nearer  view  of  it. 
He  ordered  a  light  vessel  to  be  got  ready,  and  gave  me  the 
liberty,  if  I  thought  proper,  to  attend  him.  I  rather  chose 
to  continue  my  studies  ;  for,  as  it  happened,  he  had  given 
me  an  employment  of  that  kind.  As  lie  was  coming  out  of 
the  house,  he  received  a  note  from  Eectina,  the  '\^'ife  of 
Bassus,  who  was  in  the  utmost  alarm  at  the  imminent  danger 
which  threatened  her  ;  for  her  villa  being  situated  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Vesuvius,  there  was  no  way  to  escape  but  by  sea : 
she  earnestly  entreated  him,  therefore,  to  come  to  her  assist- 
ance. He  accordingly  changed  liis  first  design,  and  what  he 
began  with  a  philoso^^hical,  he  pursued  with  an  heroical  turn 

*  The  Romans  used  to  lie  or  walk  naked  in  the  sun,  after  anointing  their 
bodies  witli  oil,  which  was  esteemed  as  greatly  contributing  to  health,  and 
therefore  daily  practised  by  them. 

t  About  six  miles  distant  from  Naples.  Martial  has  a  pretty  epigram,  in 
which  he  gives  us  a  view  of  Vesuviu>i  as  it  appeared  before  this  terrible  con- 
flagration broke  out:  — 

Here  verdant  vinos  o'ei'spread  Vesuvius*  sides ; 
The  generous  grape  here  pour'd  her  purple  tides. 
This  Bacchus  lov'd  beyond  his  native  scene ; 
Here  dancing  satyrs  joy'd  to  trip  the  green. 
Far  more  than  Sparta  this  in  Venus'  grace ; 
And  great  Alcides  once  renown'd  the  place : 
Now  flaming  embers  spread  dire  waste  around. 
And  gods  regret  that  gods  can  thus  confound.*' 


38 


POMPEII. 


of  mind.  He  ordered  the  galleys  to  put  to  sea,  and  went  him- 
self on  board,  with  an  intention  of  assisting  not  only  Eectina, 
but  several  others,  for  the  villas  stand  extremely  thick  upon 
that  beautiful  coast.  When  hastening  to  the  place  from 
which  others  fled  with  the  utmost  terror,  he  steered  his 
course  direct  to  the  point  of  danger,  and  with  so  much  calm- 
ness and  presence  of  mind,  as  to  be  able  to  make  and  dictate 
his  observations  upon  the  motion  and  figure  of  that  dreadful 
scene.  He  was  now  so  nigh  the  mountain,  that  the  cinders, 
which  grew  thicker  and  hotter  the  nearer  he  approached,  fell 
into  the  ships,  together  with  pumice-stones  and  black  pieces 
of  burning  rock.  They  were  likewise  in  danger,  not  only  of 
being  aground  by  the  sudden  retreat  of  the  sea,  but  also  from 
the  vast  fragments  which  rolled  down  from  the  mountain 
and  obstructed  all  the  shore.  Here  he  stopped  to  consider 
whether  he  should  return  back  again  ;  to  which  the  pilot 
advising  him,  '  Fortune,'  said  he, '  befriends  the  brave  ;  carry 
me  to  Pomponianus.'  Pomponianus  was  then  at  Stabiae,* 
separated  by  a  gulf,  which  the  sea,  after  several  insensible 
windings,  forms  upon  the  shore.  He  had  already  sent  his 
baggage  on  board ;  for  though  he  was  not  at  that  time  in 
actual  danger,  yet  being  within  the  view  of  it,  and,  indeed, 
extremely  near,  if  it  should  in  the  least  increase,  he  was  de- 
termined to  put  to  sea  as  soon  as  the  wind  should  change. 
It  was  favourable,  however,  for  carrying  my  uncle  to  Pom- 
ponianus, whom  he  found  in  the  greatest  consternation.  He 
embraced  him  with  tenderness,  encouraging  and  exhorting 
him  to  keep  up  his  spirits,  and  the  more  to  dissipate  his 
fears,  he  ordered,  with  an  air  of  unconcern,  the  baths  to  be 
got  ready  ;  v^hen,  after  having  bathed,  he  sat  down  to  supper 
with  great  cheerfulness,  or  at  least  (what  is  equally  heroic) 
with  all  the  appearance  of  it.  In  the  meanwhile,  the  erup- 
tion from  Mount  Vesuvius  flamed  out  in  several  places  with 
much  violence,  which  the  darkness  of  the  night  contributed 
to  render  still  more  visible  and  dreadful.  But  my  uncle,  in 
order  to  sooth  the  apprehensions  of  his  friend,  assured  him 
it  was  only  the  burning  of  the  villages,  which  the  country 
people  had  abandoned  to  the  flames.  After  this  he  retired  to 
rest,  and  it  is  most  certain  he  was  so  little  discomposed  as  to 
fall  into  a  deep  sleep ;  for  being  pretty  fat,  and  breathing 

*  Now  called  Castellamare,  iu  the  Gulf  of  Naples, 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


39 


hard,  those  who  attended  without  actually  heard  him  snore. 
The  court  which  led  to  his  apartment  being  now  almost  filled 
with  stones  and  ashes,  if  he  had  continued  there  any  time 
longer,  it  would  have  been  impossible  for  him  to  have  made 
his  way  out ;  it  was  thought  proper,  therefore,  to  awaken 
him.  He  got  up,  and  went  to  Pomponianus  and  the  rest  of 
his  company,  who  were  not  unconcerned  enough  to  think  of 
going  to  bed.  They  consulted  together  whether  it  would  be 
most  prudent  to  trust  to  the  houses,  which  now  shook  from 
side  to  side  with  frequent  and  violent  concussions ;  or  ily  to 
the  open  fields,  where  the  calcined  stones  and  cinders,  though 
light  indeed,  yet  fell  in  large  showers,  and  threatened  de- 
struction. In  this  distress  they  resolved  for  the  fields,  as 
the  less  dangerous  situation  of  the  two ;  a  resolution  which, 
while  the  rest  of  the  company  were  hurried  into  it  by  their 
fears,  my  uncle  embraced  upon  cool  and  deliberate  considera- 
tion. They  went  out  then,  having  pillows  tied  upon  their 
heads  with  napkins ;  and  this  was  their  whole  defence  against 
the  storm  of  stones  that  fell  around  them.  It  was  now  day 
everywhere  else,  but  there  a  deeper  darkness  2)revailed  than 
in  the  most  obscure  night  ;  which,  however,  was  in  some 
degree  dissipated  by  torches  and  other  lights  of  various  kinds. 
They  thought  proper  to  go  down  further  upon  the  shore,  to 
observe  if  they  might  safely  put  out  to  sea  ;  but  they  found 
the  waves  still  run  extremely  high  and  boisterous.  There 
my  uncle,  having  drunk  a  draught  or  two  of  cold  water,  threw 
himself  down  upon  a  cloth  which  was  S2)read  for  him,  when 
immediately  the  flames,  and  a  strong  smell  of  sulphur,  which 
was  the  forerunner  of  them,  dispersed  the  rest  of  the  com- 
pany, and  obliged  him  to  rise.  He  raised  himself  up  with 
the  assistance  of  two  of  his  servants,  and  instantly  fell  down 
dead — sufibcated,  as  I  conjecture,  by  some  gross  and  noxious 
vapour,  having  always  had  weak  lungs,  and  being  frequently 
subject  to  a  difiiculty  of  breathing.  As  soon  as  it  was  light 
again,  which  was  not  till  the  third  day  after  this  melancholy 
accident,  his  body  was  found  entire,  and  without  any  marks 
of  violence  upon  it,  exactly  in  the  same  posture  that  he  fell, 
and  looking  more  like  a  man  asleep  than  dead.  During  all 
tliis  time  my  mother  and  I,  who  were  at  Misenum  * — but  as 
this  has  no  connexion  with  your  history,  so  your  inquiry 

*  See  this  account  continued,  in  the  following  letter. 


40 


POMPEII. 


went  no  farther  than  concerning  my  uncle's  death :  with 
that,  therefore,  I  will  put  an  end  to  my  letter.  Suffer  me 
only  to  add,  that  I  have  faithfully  related  to  you  what  I  was 
either  an  eye-witness  of  myself,  or  heard  immediately  after 
the  accident  happened,  and  before  there  was  time  to  vary  the 
truth.  You  will  choose  out  of  this  narrative  such  circum- 
stances as  shall  be  most  suitable  to  your  purpose  ;  for  there 
is  a  great  difference  between  what  is  proper  for  a  letter  and  a 
history — between  writing  to  a  friend  and  writing  for  the  pub- 
lic.   Farewell  1"  * 

The  letter  which,  in  compliance  with  your  request,  I 
wrote  to  you  concerning  the  death  of  my  uncle,  has  raised,  it 
seems,  your  curiosity  to  know  what  terrors  and  dangers 
attended  me  while  I  continued  at  Misenum ;  for  there,  I  think, 
the  account  in  my  former  broke  off. 

*  Though  my  shocked  soul  recoils,  my  tongue  shall  tell/f 

"  My  uncle  having  left  us,  I  pursued  the  studies  which 
prevented  my  going  with  him,  till  it  was  time  to  bathe. 
x\fter  which  I  went  to  supper  and  from  thence  to  bed,  where 
my  sleep  was  greatly  broken  and  disturbed .  There  had  been, 
for  many  days  before,  some  shocks  of  an  earthquake,  which  the 
less  surprised  us  as  they  are  extremely  frequent  in  Campania  ; 
but  they  were  so  particularly  violent  that  night,  that  they  not 
only  shook  everything  about  us,  but  seemed  indeed  to  threaten 
total  destruction.  My  mother  flew  to  my  chamber,  where 
she  found  me  rising,  in  order  to  awaken  her.  We  went  out 
into  a  small  court  belonging  to  the  house,  which  separated 
the  sea  from  the  buildings.  As  I  wa  s  at  that  time  but  eighteen 
years  of  age,  I  know  not  whether  I  should  call  my  behaviour, 
in  this  dangerous  juncture,  courage  or  rashness ;  but  I  took 
up  Livy,  and  amused  myself  with  turning  over  that  author, 
and  even  making  extracts  from  him,  as  if  all  about  me  had 
been  in  full  security.  While  we  were  in  this  posture,  a  friend 
of  my  uncle,  who  was  just  come  from  Spain  to  pay  him  a 
visit,  joined  us  ;  and  observing  me  sitting  by  my  mother  with 
a  book  in  my  hand,  greatly  condemned  her  calmness,  at  the 
same  time  fliat  he  reproved  me  for  my  careless  security. 
Nevertheless,  I  still  went  on  with  my  author.    Though  it 

*  Pliny's  Letters,  Melmoth's  translation,  vi.  16. 

f     Quanquam  animus  raeminisse  horret,  &c."  Virgil,  book  ii.  12. 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


41 


was  now  morning,  the  light  was  exceedingly  faint  and  lan- 
guid ;  the  buildings  all  around  us  tottered,  and  tliough  we 
stood  upon  open  ground,  yet,  as  the  place  was  narrow  and 
confined,  there  was  no  remaining  there  without  certain  and 
great  danger  :  we  therefore  resolved  to  quit  the  tow^n.  The 
peoi^le  followed  us  in  the  utmost  consternation  ;  and,  as  to  a 
mind  distracted  with  terror  every  suggestion  seems  more 
prudent  than  its  own,  pressed  in  great  crowds  about  us  in  our 
way  out.  Being  got  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the  houses, 
we  stood  still,  in  the  midst  of  a  most  dangerous  and  dreadful 
scene.  The  chariots  w^hich  we  had  ordered  to  be  drawn  out, 
weie  so  agitated  backwards  and  forwards,  though  upon  the 
most  level  ground,  that  ;we  could  not  keep  them  steady,  even 
by  supporting  them  with  large  stones.  The  sea  seemed  to 
roll  back  upon  itself,  and  to  be  driven  from  its  banks  by  the 
convulsive  motion  of  the  earth  ;  it  is  certain  at  least  the 
shore  was  considerably  enlarged,  and  several  sea  animals  were 
left  upon  it.  On  the  other  side  a  black  and  dreadful  cloud, 
bursting  with  an  igneous  serpentine  vapour,  darted  out  a 
long  train  of  fii^e,  resembling  flashes  of  lightning,  but  much 
larger.  Upon  this  our  Spanish  friend,  whom  I  mentioned 
above,  addressed  himself  to  my  mother  and  me  with  great 
warmth  and  earnestness :  '  If  your  brother  and  your  uncle,' 
said  he,  '  is  safe,  he  certainly  wishes  you  may  be  so  too ;  but 
if  he  perished,  it  was  his  desire,  no  doubt,  that  you  might 
both  survive  him  :  why,  therefore,  do  you  delay  your  esca2)e 
a  moment  ?'  We  could  never  think  of  our  own  safety,  we 
said,  while  we  were  uncertain  of  his.  Hereupon  our  friend 
left  us,  and  withdrew  from  the  danger  with  the  utmost  preci- 
pitation. Soon  afterwards  the  cloud  seemed  to  descend,  and 
cover  the  whole  ocean  ;  as  indeed  it  entirely  hid  the  island  of 
Caprete*  and  the  promontory  of  Misenum.  My  mother  strongly 
conjured  me  to  make  my  escape  at  any  rate,  which,  as  I  was 
young,  I  might  easily  do :  as  for  herself,  she  said,  her  age 
and  corpulency  rendered  all  attempts  of  that  sort  impossible. 
However  she  would  willingly  meet  death,  if  she  could  have 
the  satisfaction  of  seeing  that  she  was  not  the  occasion  of 
mine.  But  I  absolutely  refused  to  leave  her,  and  taking  her 
by  the  hand  I  led  her  on  :  she  complied  with  great  reluctance, 
and  not  without  many  reproaches  to  herself  for  retarding  my 

*  An  island  twenty  miles  from  Naples,  now  called  Capii. 


42 


POMPEII. 


flight.  The  ashes  now  began  to  fall  upon  us,  though  in  no 
great  quantity.  I  turned  my  head,  and  observed  behind,  us  a 
thick  smoke,  which  came  rolling  after  us  like  a  torrent.  I 
proposed,  while  we  had  yet  any  light,  to  turn  out  of  the  high 
road,  lest  she  should  be  pressed  to  death  in  the  dark  by  the 
crowd  that  follo^ved  us.  We  had  scarce  stepped  out  of  the 
path,  w^hen  darkness  overspread  us,  not  like  that  of  a  cloudy 
night,  or  when  there  is  no  moon,  but  of  a  room  when  it  is 
shut  up  and  all  the  lights  extinct.  Nothing  then  was  to  be 
heard  but  the  shrieks  of  women,  the  screams  of  children,  and 
the  cries  of  men ;  some  calling  for  their  children,  others  for 
their  parents,  others  for  their  husbands,  and  only  distinguish- 
ing each  other  by  their  voices  ;  one  lamenting  his  own  fate, 
another  that  of  his  family  ;  some  wishing  to  die  from  the  very 
fear  of  dying  ;  some  lifting  their  hands  to  the  gods  ;  but  the 
greater  part  imagining  that  the  last  and  eternal  night  was 
come,  which  was  to  destroy  the  gods  and  the  world  together.* 
Among  these  were  some  who  augmented  the  real  terrors  by 
imaginary  ones,  and  made  the  frighted  multitude  falsely 
believe  that  Misenum  was  actually  in  flames.  At  length  a 
glimmering  light  appeared,  which  we  imagined  to  be  rather 
the  forerunner  of  an  approaching  biu'st  of  flames,  as  in  truth 
it  was,  than  the  return  of  day.  However,  the  fire  fell  at  a 
distance  from  us.  Then  again  we  were  immersed  in  thick 
darkness,  and  a  heavy  shower  of  ashes  rained  upon  us,  which 
we  were  obliged  every  now  and  then  to  shake  off,  otherwise 
we  should  have  been  crushed  and  buried  in  the  heap.  I 
might  boast  that,  during  all  this  scene  of  horror,  not  a  sigh 
or  expression  of  fear  escaped  from  me,  had  not  my  support 
been  founded  in  that  miserable,  though  strong  consolation — 
that  all  mankind  were  involved  in  the  same  calamity,  and 
that  I  imagined  I  was  perishing  with  the  world  itself !  At 
last  this  dreadful  darkness  was  dissipated  by  degrees,  like  a 
cloud  of  smoke ;  the  real  day  returned,  and  even  the  sun 
appeared,  though  very  faintly,  and  as  when  an  eclipse  is 
coming  on.  Every  object  that  presented  itself  to  our  eyes 
(which  were  extremely  weakened)  seemed  changed,  being 

*  The  Stoic  and  Epicurean  philosophers  held  that  the  world  was  to  be 
destroyed  by  fire,  and  all  things  fall  again  into  original  chaos  ;  not  excepting 
even  the  national  gods  themselves  from  the  destruction  of  this  general  con- 
flagration. 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


43 


covered  over  with  white  ashes,  as  with  a  deep  snow.  We 
returned  to  Misenum,  where  we  refreshed  ourselves  as  well 
as  we  could,  and  passed  an  anxious  night  between  hope  and 
fear — though  indeed  with  a  much  larger  share  of  the  latter — 
for  the  earthquake  still  continued,  while  several  enthusiastic 
peoj)le  ran  up  and  down,  heightening  their  own  and  their 
friends'  calamities  by  terrible  predictions.  However,  my 
mother  and  J,  notwithstanding  the  danger  we  had  passed, 
and  that  which  still  threatened  us,  had  no  thoughts  of 
leaving  the  place  till  we  should  receive  some  account  from 
my  uncle. 

"  And  now  you  will  read  this  narrative  without  any  view 
of  inserting  it  in  your  history,  of  which  it  is  by  no  means 
worthy  ;  and  indeed  you  must  impute  it  to  your  own  request 
if  it  shall  deserve  the  trouble  of  a  letter.    Farewell."  * 

Pompeii  was  not  destroyed  by  an  inundation  of  lava ;  its 
elevated  position  sheltered  it  from  that  fate  ;  it  was  buried 
under  that  shower  of  stones  and  cinders  of  which  Pliny 
speaks.  Much  of  this  matter  appears  to  have  been  deposited 
in  a  liquid  state,  which  is  easily  explained ;  for  the  vast 
volumes  of  steam  sent  up  by  the  volcano  descended  in 
torrents  of  rain,  which  united  with  the  ashes  suspended  in 
the  air,  or  washed  them,  after  they  had  fallen,  into  places 
where  they  could  not  well  have  penetrated  in  a  dry  state. 
Among  other  proofs  of  this,  the  skeleton  of  a  woman  was 
found  in  a  cellar,  enclosed  within  a  mould  of  volcanic  paste, 
which  received  and  has  retained  a  perfect  impression  of  her 
form.  Other  moulds  of  a  like  kind  have  since  been  dis- 
covered. In  the  great  eruption  of  1779,  minutely  described 
by  Sir  William  Hamilton,  Ottaiano,  a  small  town  situated  at 
the  foot  of  Somma,  most  narrowly  escaped  similar  destruction. 
The  phenomena  then  observed  may  be  presumed  to  correspond 
closely  with  those  which  occurred  at  Pompeii. 

On  the  night  of  the  8th  of  August,  when  the  noise  in- 
creased, and  the  fire  began  to  appear  above  the  mountain  of 
Somma,  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  town  flew  to  the 
churches,  and  others  were  preparing  to  quit  the  town,  when 
a  sudden  violent  report  was  heard,  soon  after  which  they 
found  themselves  involved  in  a  thick  cloud  of  smoke  and 


*  Pliny's  Letters,  vi.  20 ;  IMelmoth's  translation. 


44 


POMPEII. 


minute  ashes ;  a  horrid  clashing  was  lieard  in  the  air,  and 
presently  fell  a  deluge  of  stones  and  large  scoriae,  some  of 
which  scoriae  were  of  the  diameter  of  seven  or  eight  feet,  and 
must  have  weighed  more  than  one  hundred  pounds  before 
they  were  broken  by  their  fall,  as  some  of  the  fragments  of 
them,  which  I  picked  up  in  the  streets,  still  weighed  upwards 
of  sixty  pounds.  When  these  large  vitrified  masses  either 
struck  against  one  another  in  the  air,  or  fell  on  the  ground, 
they  broke  into  many  pieces,  and  covered  a  large  space 
around  them  with  vivid  sparks  of  fire,  which  communicated 
their  heat  to  everything  that  was  combustible.  In  an  instant 
the  town  and  country  about  it  was  on  fire  in  many  parts ;  for 
in  the  vineyards  there  were  several  straw  huts,  which  had 
been  erected  for  the  watchmen  of  the  grapes,  all  of  which 
were  burnt.  A  great  magazine  of  wood  in  the  heart  of  the 
town  was  all  in  a  blaze ;  and  had  there  been  much  wind,  the 
flames  must  have  spread  universally,  and  all  the  inhabitants 
would  infallibly  have  been  burnt  in  their  houses,  for  it  was 
impossible  for  them  to  stir  out.  Some  who  attempted  it,  with 
pillows,  tables,  chairs,  the  tops  of  wine-casks,  &c.,  on  their 
heads,  were  either  knocked  down,  or  soon  driven  back  to 
their  close  quarters,  under  arches  and  in  the  cellars  of  their 
houses.  Many  were  wounded,  but  only  two  persons  have 
died  of  the  wounds  they  received  from  this  dreadful  volcanic 
shower.  To  add  to  the  horror  of  the  scene,  incessant  volcanic 
lightning  was  whisking  about  the  black  cloud  that  surrounded 
them,  and  the  sulj)hureous  heat  and  smell  would  scarcely 
allow  them  to  draw  their  breath.  In  this  miserable  and 
alarming  situation  they  remained  about  twenty-five  minutes, 
when  the  volcanic  storm  ceased  all  at  once."*  It  is  evident 
that  if  the  eruption  had  continued  for  a  brief  space  longer, 
Ottaiano  must  have  perished  like  Pompeii. 

The  dreadful  effects  of  the  eruption  of  79,  in  changing 
the  external  face  of  nature,  are  recorded  by  Roman  authors 
of  the  period.  Tacitus  tells  us  that  the  view  over  the  bay, 
from  the  island  of  Capri,  before  so  beautiful,  had  been 
completely  changed  by  that  catastrophe.^  And  Martial,  in 
the  epigram  before  quoted,  gives  a  glowing  picture  of  the 

*  Campi  Phlegroei,  supplement,  p.  19. 

t  Prospectabatqiie  pulcherrimum  sinum  antequam  Vesuvius  mons  arde- 
scens  faciem  loci  verterat. — Ann,  iv.  64. 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


45 


country  about  Vesuvius  before  it  vanished  under  heaps  of 
ashes.* 

The  materials  with  which  Pompeii  is  buried  are  from  20  to 
24  feet  deep.  The  greater  part  of  this  covering  is  composed 
of  white,  or  whitish-grey  pounded  stones  or  ashes  (Icqnlli), 
which  peculiarly  characterize  the  eruption  of  79.  Pompeii 
may  have  subsequently  been  covered  to  the  depth  of  a  few 
feet  by  subsequent  eruptions,  distinguished  by  the  greyish- 
black  colour  of  the  ashes.  Five-sixths  of  the  depth  of  the 
materials  consist  of  pumice-stones  of  an  irregular  shape, 
from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  two  or  three  inches  diameter.  Over 
this  is  another  layer,  of  an  average  depth  of  two  feet,  which 
appears  to  have  been  attended  in  its  descent  with  an  enormous 
fall  of  water,  forming  what  the  Italians  call  a  lava  havosa.  The 
outer  surface  has,  in  process  of  time,  been  converted  into  a 
fine  mould,  which  now  bears  lupins  and  corn,  and  even  mul- 
berry and  other  trees,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  unexcavated 
parts.  It  has  been  pretty  generally  thought  that  the  ashes 
descended  upon  Pompeii  in  a  burning  state  ;  and  to  this 
circumstance  has  been  ascribed  the  carbonization  of  the 
wood,  bread,  and  other  combustible  substances.  Overbeck, 
however,  is  of  opinion  |  that  they  were  not  in  that  state  of 
excandescence  in  which  they  would  have  set  fire  to  anything, 
though  they  were  probably  hot  enough  to  change  any  coloured 
surfaces  with  which  they  came  in  contact,  as  red  into  yello^v^ 
and  to  give  a  green  shade  to  blues,  and  he  refers  the  process 
of  carbonization  to  the  circumstance  of  the  carbonized  articles 
having  been  bmied  so  many  centuries.  Hence,  he  thinks, 
that  fire  was  no  element  in  the  destruction  of  Pompeii, 
though  the  immense  masses  of  water  always  thrown  up 
during  such  eruptions  undoubtedly  was. 

With  respect  to  the  number  of  persons  destroyed  by  the 
eruption  no  accurate  and  authentic  calculation  has  been  made, 
nor  in  fact  can  be  made  till  the  whole  city  shall  have  been 
uncovered.  Even  the  number  of  bodies  hitherto  found  in 
the  process  of  excavation  has  not  been  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained ;  but  the  frequency  with  which  such  discoveries  are 
mentioned  in  the  journals,  and  sometimes  of  thirty  or  forty 
bodies  together,  may  justify  the  conclusion  thet  they  amount 


*  Epp.  iv.  44. 


t  Pompeii.  B.  i.  §  29. 


46 


POMPEII. 


to  600  or  700.  This  inference  is  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  in  the  small  portion  of  the  city  uncovered  since  Fiorelli 
undertook  the  direction  of  the  excavations  in  1861,  more 
than  forty  human  skeletons  have  been  found,  besides  those  of 
horses,  goats,  dogs,  and  cats.*  If,  therefore,  such  discoveries 
should  proceed  in  the  same  ratio,  we  may  conclude — since  only 
about  one-third  of  the  city  has  been  disinterred — that  some 
2000  persons  must  have  perished.  A  sufficiently  terrible  catas- 
trophe !  yet,  at  the  same  time,  a  result  which  shows  that  the 
great  bulk  of  the  population  had  sufficient  warning  and  time 
to  save  their  lives.  The  same  conclusion  may  be  drawn  from 
the  account  of  Pliny,  as  well  as  from  the  circumstance  that 
though  the  people  were  assembled  in  the  amphitheatre  when 
the  eruption  broke  out,  but  very  few  bodies  have  been  found 
there ;  and  even  these,  as  Overbeck  remarks,  may,  perhaps, 
have  been  those  of  gladiators  already  slain.  The  skeletons 
found  are  probably  those  of  the  sick,  the  infirm,  and  the  irre- 
solute ;  of  those  who  mistakingly  thought  that  they  should 
find  protection  against  the  fatal  shower  in  their  houses  or 
their  cellars ;  or  of  those  who,  from  motives  of  avarice,  and 
sometimes,  perhaps,  of  affection,  lingered  in  search  of 
their  treasures  or  their  beloved  ones  till  there  was  no  longer 
time  to  effect  their  escape. 

That  the  eruption  was  accompanied  with  an  earthquake 
may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  some  skeletons  have 
been  found  of  persons  killed  by  the  falling  of  ruins  upon 
them.  Thus,  on  the  14th  of  June,  1787,  eight  skeletons 
were  discovered  under  the  debris  of  a  wall,t  and  on  the  5th 
of  May,  1818,  were  found  in  the  Eorum  the  bones  of  a  man 
who  had  been  crushed  by  a  marble  column  falling  upon 
him.  J 

This  earthquake  may  have  contributed,  as  well  as  that  of 
the  year  63,  to  give  the  town  that  ruined  appearance  which 
is  so  observable.  There  can,  however,  be  little  doubt  that 
this  appearance  was  also  partly  caused  by  searches  made 
after  the  catastrophe  for  hidden  treasures,  statues,  marbles, 
&c.  The  light  nature  of  the  covering  under  which  Pompeii 
was  buried  rendered  this   no  difficult  task.     There  are 

*  Overbeck,  Pompeii^  B.  i.  §  30. 

t  Pomp.  Ant.  Hist.,  T.  i.  Fasc.  ii.  p.  37. 

+  Ibid.  Fasc.  iii.  p.  203. 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


47 


evident  traces  of  such  searches ;  and  in  no  other  way 
can  we  explain  the  comparative  paucity  of  valuable  articles 
that  have  been  discovered,  not  only  gold  and  silver,  but 
also  sculptures. 

Such  researches  appear  to  have  been  carried  on  during  a 
long  period ;  since  it  is  recorded  of  the  Emperor  Alexander 
Severus  that  he  made  Pompeii  a  sort  of  quarry,  from  which 
he  drew  a  great  quantity  of  marbles,  columns,  and  beautiful 
statues,  which  he  employed  in  adorning  the  edifices  which 
he  constructed  at  Eome.*  The  Emperor  Titus  appears  to 
have  entertained  the  idea  of  rebuilding  the  ruined  cities  of 
Campania  ;|  a  plan,  however,  which  was  never  carried 
into  execution,  either  on  account  of  the  death  of  that 
emperor,  which  shortly  after  supervened,  or  more  proba- 
bly, because  it  was  found  that  the  benefit  to  be  derived 
from  such  a  proceeding  would  be  utterly  inadequate  to  the 
expense  of  it. 

During  a  period  of  1669  years  Pompeii  remained  buried 
and  seemed  entirely  forgotten,  notwithstanding  that  its  site, 
probably  ever  since  its  destruction,  had  always  borne  the 
name  of  Civita,  or  the  City.  It  is  singular  that  it  was  not 
discovered  sooner,  for  Dominico  Fontana,  an  eminent  archi- 
tect of  the  sixteenth  century,  having  been  employed  in  the 
year  15U2  to  bring  the  waters  of  the  Sarno  to  the  town  of 
Torre  doll'  Annunziata,  cut  a  subterraneous  canal  under  the 
site  of  Pompeii,  which,  entering  the  city  near  the  Gate  of 
the  Sarno,  traverses  it  in  a  winding  direction,  passing  near 
the  great  theatre  and  under  the  Forum,  till  it  makes  its 
exit  on  the  western  side,  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  Sea  Gate. 
In  the  course  of  this  work  the  basements  of  buildings  were 
often  encountered;  jet  this  circumstance  does  not  seem 
to  have  awakened  any  curiosity,  nor  to  have  excited  a  desire 
to  prosecute  further  researches.  Euins  were  also  discovered 
in  1689,  and  even  an  inscription  with  the  name  of  Pompei; 
but  these  indications  were  disregarded  like  the  former. 

*  Some  buildings  now  completely  excavated  bear  marks  of  having  been 
previously  searched  by  the  ancients.  In  such  places,  all  valuable  etiects  and 
materials  have  been  carried  away,  as,  lor  instance,  the  columns  of  the  portico 
of  Kumachia,  a  building  adjoining  the  Forum,  to  be  described  hei'eafter,  and 
the  furniture  of  the  Basilica. 

t  Suet.  Tit.  8. 


48 


POMPEII. 


At  lengtli,  in  1748,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  III.,  the  first 
Bourbon  king  of  Naples,  a  Spanish  colonel  of  engineers, 
named  Don  Eocco  Alcubierre,  was  employed  to  examine  the 
subterranean  canal  before  mentioned ;  and  having  heard  from 
the  inhabitants  of  Torre  Annunziata  that  the  remains  of  a 
house,  vdth.  ancient  statues  and  other  objects,  had  been  dis- 
covered at  a  distance  of  about  two  miles,  he  was  led  to  con- 
jectui'e  that  some  ancient  city  lay  bmied  there,  overwhelmed 
by  the  great  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  79.  The  discovery  of 
Herculaneum  early  in  the  18th  century  had  now  drawn  the 
attention  of  the  learned  and  scientific  world  to  this  subject. 
Colonel  Alcubierre  obtained  permission  to  undertake  some 
excavations  at  the  spot  where  the  ruined  house  had  been 
discovered,  and  early  in  April,  1748,  he  commenced  his 
researches,  in  the  street  afterwards  called  the  Strada  delhi 
Fortuna.  In  a  few  days  his  labours  were  rewarded  by  the 
discovery  of  a  picture  1 1  palms  long  by  4t  palms  high,  con- 
taining festoons  of  eggs,  fruits,  and  flowers,  the  head  of  a 
man,  large  and  in  a  good  style,  a  helmet,  an  owl,  various 
small  birds,  and  other  objects,  A  regular  journal  of  the  dis- 
coveries was  kept,  in  Spanish,  and  was  continued  in  that 
language  down  to  the  7th  of  July,  1764,  after  which  the 
Italian  was  substituted  for  it.  On  the  J  9th  of  April,  1748, 
the  first  skeleton  was  found,  that  of  a  man  lying  on  the  ashes, 
or  rapillo,  and  covered  with  the  lava  mud.  Near  him  were 
eighteen  brass,  and  one  silver  coin.*  Before  the  end  of  the 
year  the  amphitheatre  was  excavated,  which  is  declared  in 
the  joui-nal  capable  of  holding  1 2,000  persons — an  exaggera- 
tion of  not  more  than  2000.  It  may  be  remarked  that  it  is 
called  in  the  joui^nal  the  amphitheatre  of  Stahice.^-  For  several 
years  it  was  imagined  that  the  remains  discovered  belonged 
to  that  town,  which  is  now  known  to  have  occupied  the  site 
of  the  jDresent  Castellamare. 

The  name  of  Pompeii  is  first  used  in  the  journal,  November 
27th,  1756.1:  but  it  does  not  appear  how  the  city  came  to  be 
identified.  Any  doubts  that  might  have  been  entertained 
upon  the  subject  must  however  have  been  removed  by  the 
discovery,  near  the  tomb  of  Mammia  (August  20th,  1763).  of 
the  following  inscription,  recording  the  restoration  by  Yes- 

*  Fio;elli,  Pomp.  Antiq.  Hist.,  t.  i.  p.  2.  f  loid.  p.  6, 

X  Ibid.  p.  46. 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


49 


pasian  to  the  municipality  of  the  Pompeians  of  all  public 
ground  occupied  by  private  persons  :  — 

EX  AVCTOPJTATE 

IMP  CAESARIS 
VESPASIANI  AVG 
LOCA  PVBLICA  A  PRIVATIS 
POSSESSA  T  SVEDIVS  CLEMENS 
TKIBVNVS  CAVSIS  COGNITIS  ET 
MENSVRIS  FACTIS  REX 
PVBLICAE  POMPEIANORVM 
RESTITVIT.* 

The  following  account  of  the  progress  of  the  excavations 
is  taken  from  an  admirable  article  on  Pompeii  in  the  Quarterly 
Beview  for  April,  1864. 

"  The  excavations  were  carried  on  for  many  years  on  a 
very  limited  scale,  and  with  very  varying  success.  The 
workmen  employed  were  chiefly  condemned  felons,  who 
worked  chained  in  pairs,  and  Mohammedan  slaves  taken  from 
the  Barbary  pirates.  The  greatest  secrecy  was  maintained, 
and  no  stranger  could  obtain  admission  to  t]ie  ruins.  No 
regular  plan  seems  to  have  been  made  of  the  part  of  the  town 
uncovered,  nor  was  there  any  attempt  to  restore  or  keep  up 
the  buildings.  The  reports  contain  accurate  descriptions  of 
the  discoveries — the  statues,  paintings  on  the  walls,  and  the 
various  objects  in  gold,  silver,  and  other  metals.  Such  things 
were  diligently  searched  for,  and  were  sent  off  to  the  royal 
collections  as  soon  as  discovered.  Copies  were  taken  of  the 
most  important  paintings,  whifch  were  then  detached  from 
the  walls  and  transferred  to  the  Museum,  the  edifices  in 
which  they  were  found  being  left  to  perish,  or  being  again 
covered  up  with  the  rubbish  removed  from  adjoining  exca- 
vations." 

The  most  important  discoveries  made  during  the  remainder 
of  the  eighteenth  century  were,  that  called  the  Soldier's 
Quarters,  close  to  the  theatres,  in  December,  1766,  and  that 
of  the  suburban  villa  of  Diomedes.  The  excavation  of  the 
latter  was  commenced  in  July,  1771 ;  and  such  was  at  that 
time  the  dilatoriness  of  the  operation,  that  it  was  not  till 

*  Fiorelli,  Pomp,  Antiq,  Hist,,  t.  i.  p.  153. 


50 


POMPEH. 


December,  1772,  that  the  corridor,  or  subterranean  passage, 
containing  a  group  of  eighteen  skeletons,  was  discovered. 
Indeed,  during  the  sway  of  the  Bourbon  kings  nothing  was 
done  in  a  liberal  spirit  or  from  a  real  love  of  art.  The 
excavations  were  a  mere  source  of  jobbing  and  peculation ; 
strangers  who  visited  them  were  subjected  to  the  most  irk- 
some regulations,  as  well  as  the  demand  of  exorbitant  fees ; 
and  it  was  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  and  after  weari- 
some delays  that  permission  could  be  obtained  to  take  a  copy 
of  any  mosaic,  fresco,  or  other  object  of  interest  that  might 
have  been  discovered.  The  short  period  during  which  the 
French  occupied  Naples,  beginning  in  January,  1806,  forms 
an  exception  to  the  preceding  remarks.  During  this  period 
the  greater  portion  of  the  Street  of  the  Tombs,  the  Forum,  and 
the  line  of  walls  were  laid  open,  and  the  reclearing  of  the 
amphitheatre,  which  appears  to  have  been  again  filled  up,  was 
begun.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Mazois  commenced  his 
splendid  work  on  Pompeii,  under  the  patronage  of  Madame 
Murat,  or  Queen  Caroline.  Saliceti,  the  intelligent  minister  of 
Murat,  appears  to  have  given  an  impulse  to  the  work  of 
excavation,  and  undertook  some  scavi  at  his  own  expense. 

After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  the  works  were 
slowly  continued ;  but  it  is  to  this  period  that  several  of  the 
most  interesting  excavations  must  be  referred ;  as  those  of 
several  temples  round  the  Forum,  of  the  public  baths,  the 
hoase  of  the  tragic  poet,  of  the  Fountain,  of  the  Faun,  the 
Fullonica,  and  many  others  which  will  be  specified  in  the 
sequel.  The  revolution  which  drove  the  Bourbons  from  the 
throne  had  a  great  influence  o»  the  proceedings  of  Pompeii. 
When,  in  1859,  Garibaldi  become  dictator  of  Naples,  he 
appointed  the  romance  writer,  M.  Alexandre  Dumas,  director 
of  the  Museums  and  excavations.  M.  Dumas  lived  ai 
Naples  in  princely  magnificence  ;  but  he  was  totally  unfit 
for  the  of&ce  assigned  to  him,  and  is  said  to  have  visited 
Pompeii  only  once.  After  the  establishment  of  Victor  Em- 
manuel's authority  in  the  Neapolitan  dominions,  as  king 
of  Italy,  the  place  of  director  of  the  scavi  was  bestowed  on  the 
Cavaliere  Giuseppe  Fiorelli,  who  had  been  long  distinguished 
as  a  scholar  and  an  antiquary,  but  whose  liberal  opinions  had 
Drought  upon  him  the  persecution  of  the  Bourbon  govern- 
ment.   Kespecting  the  reforms  efiected  by  this  gentleman  in 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


51 


tlie  method  of  conducting  the  excavations,  we  cannot  do  better 
than  transcribe  the  following  passages  from  the  article  before 
mentioned  in  the  Quarterly  Meview.* 

"With  the  appointment  of  the  Cavaliere  Fiorelli  a  new 
era  commenced  at  Pompeii.  Hitherto  the  excavations  had 
been  carried  on  without  definite  or  intelligible  plan.  The 
aim  of  those  who  directed  them  was  to  find  as  many  objects 
of  value  as  possible  to  add  to  the  already  magnificent  col- 
lection in  the  Koyal  Museum.  No  very  careful  or  accurate 
observations  were  consequently  made  whilst  the  earth  and 
rubbish  were  being  hastily  and  carelessly  removed.  Im- 
portant and  interesting  facts  were  left  unrecorded,  and  the 
means  of  restoring  many  of  the  architectural  details  of  the 
buildings  discovered  were  neglected.  Signer  Fiorelli  had 
perceived  how  much  could  be  done  by  removing  the  volcanic 
deposits  with  care,  and  upon  a  regular  system,  taking  note  of 
every  appearance  or  fragment  which  might  afford  or  suggest 
a  restoration  of  any  part  of  the  buried  edifices.  The  plan 
he  pursues  is  this.  The  excavations  are  commenced  by  clear- 
ing away  from  the  surface  the  vegetable  mould,  in  which 
there  are  no  remains.  The  volcanic  substances,  either 
lapillo^  or  hardened  lava-mud,  in  which  ruins  of  buildings 
may  exist,  are  then  very  gradually  removed.  Every  fragment 
of  brickwork  is  kept  in  the  place  where  it  is  found,  and  fixed 
there  by  props.  When  charr^cd  wood  is  discovered,  it  is  re- 
placed by  fresh  timber.  By  thus  carefully  retaining  in  its 
original  position  what  still  exists,  and  by  replacing  that 
which  has  perished,  but  has  left  its  trace,  Signer  Fiorelli  has 
been  able  to  i)reserve  and  restore  a  large  part  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  buried  houses. 

"  One  of  the  first  and  most  interesting  results  of  the  im- 
proved system  upon  which  the  excavations  are  thus  carried 
on,  has  been  the  discovery  and  restoration  of  the  second  story 
of  a  Pompeian  house,  and  especially  of  the  menianum,  a  pro- 
jecting gallery  or  balcony  overhanging  the  street.  This 
part  of  a  Eoman  building,  which  is  frequently  represented  in 
the  wall-paintings,  but  the  existence  of  which  at  Pompeii 
had  been  doubted  or  denied,  was  built  of  brick,  and  supported 
by  strong  wooden  beams  and  props.    The  masonry  is  still  in 


*  Page  329,  seq. 


52 


POMPEII. 


many  cases  preserved ;  the  carbonized  wood  had  to  be  re- 
stored. Some  of  these  galleries  seem  to  have  been  entirely- 
open,  like  a  modern  balcony,  and  as  they  are  represented  in 
the  frescoes ;  others  formed  part  of  the  upper  chambers  of 
the  house,  and  were  furnished  with  small  windows,  from 
which  the  inmates  could  see  the  passers-by.  In  the  narrow 
streets  of  Pompeii,  these  projecting  galleries  must  have 
approached  so  nearly  as  almost  to  exclude  the  rays  of  even 
the  midsummer  sun,  and  to  throw  a  grateful  shade  below. 
The  upper  stories,  which  appear  to  have  been  sometimes 
more  than  one  in  number,  were  reached  by  stairs  of  brick  or 
wood.  Some  of  those  in  brick  are  still  partly  preserved. 
Those  in  wood  have  perished ;  but  the  holes  for  the  beams 
are  there,  and  the  charred  beams  themselves  can  be  renewed. 

"  By  Signer  Fiorelli's  careful  and  ingenious  restorations, 
we  can  now,  for  the  first  time,  picture  to  ourselves  the  appear- 
ance of  a  Eoman  town.  Previously  we  only  had  the  bare 
walls,  forming  nothing  but  a  collection  of  shapeless  ruins. 
Had  his  plan  been  adopted  from  the  commencement,  had  the 
position  of  every  fragment  been  noted  at  the  time  of  its 
discovery,  and  had  the  doors,  windows,  and  other  wood- 
work been  restored  by  the  process  we  shall  describe,  instead 
of  wandering  amidst  a  confused  mass  of  crumbling  walls,  we 
should  have  found  ourselves  in  a  Eoman  town,  the  houses  of 
which  might  still  have  almost  harboured  its  population.  As 
far  as  we  can  now  judge,  Pompeii  must  have  nearly  resembled 
in  its  principal  features  a  modern  eastern  city.  The  outside 
of  the  houses  gave  but  little  promise  of  the  beauty  and  rich- 
ness of  the  inside.  The  sudden  change  from  the  naked 
brick  walls  facing  the  narrow  street  to  the  spacious  court- 
yard, adorned  with  paintings,  statues,  and  coloured  stuccoes, 
ornamented  with  flower-beds  and  fountains,  and  surrounded 
by  alcoves  and  porticoes,  from  which  the  burning  rays  of  the 
sun  were  warded  off  by  rich  tapestries  and  embroidered 
hangings,  will  remind  the  eastern  traveller  of  Damascus  or 
Ispahan.  The  overhanging  galleries,  with  the  small  latticed 
windows  ;  the  mean  shops — mere  recesses  in  the  outer  Avails 
of  the  houses ;  the  brick-built  counter,  with  the  earthen 
jars  and  pans  let  into  it ;  the  marble  slabs,  on  which  the 
tradesman  exposed  his  wares  and  received  his  cash;  the 
awning  stretched  across  the  street  (the  holes  by  which  it  was 


HISTORICAL  NOTICE. 


53 


fastened  are  still  visible)  ;  the  caravanserai  or  khan,  outside 
the  city  gate,  with  its  many  small  rooms  opening  into  a  stable 
behind  and  a  court-yard  in  front  (the  skeletons  of  horses  and 
their  metal  trappings  were  found  in  the  ruins  of  such  an 
hostelry  on  the  Herculean  way),  are  all  characteristic  of  a 
modern  eastern  town." 

We  shall  conclude  this  account  of  the  disinterment  of 
Pompeii  with  a  short  general  sketch  of  the  progress  of  the 
excavations.*  The  amphitheatre  was  first  partially  excavated 
in  1748.  Before  the  end  of  the  last  century,  the  quarter  of 
the  tlieatres,  the  Temple  of  Isis,  and  the  northern  portion  of 
the  town,  from  the  Gate  of  HercuLaneiun  to  the  first  fountain, 
had  been  disinterred.  Buiing  the  first  ten  years  of  the 
present  century  the  work  proceeded  very  slo^^  ly ;  but  the 
years  from  1811  to  1824  were  marked  by  considerable 
activity.  In  this  period  were  excavated  the  Forum  and  the 
adjoining  temples  and  houses,  the  whole  of  the  ampliitheatre, 
the  Street  of  Abundance  or  of  the  Merchants,  the  old  baths, 
the  Temple  of  Fortune,  the  houses  of  Pansa,  Sallust,  &c.  In 
1825  was  uncovered  the  insula  adjoining  the  house  of  Pansa 
on  the  east,  comprising  the  house  of  the  tragic  poet  and  the 
Fullonica.  During  the  next  five  years  the  excavations  were 
pursued  in  the  Street  of  Mercury  and  its  vicinity.  The 
principal  discoveries  in  this  ])eriod  were  the  houses  of  Me- 
leager,  of  the  Centaur,  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  of  Flora  f^nd 
ZeiDhyrus,  of  the  Anchor,  and  of  the  five  skeletons. 

The  Street  of  Mercury  having  been  cleared,  though  not  all 
the  adjoining  buildings,  excavations  were  begun  in  the 
autumn  of  1830  in  the  street  called  the  Strada  della  Fortuna, 
leading  from  the  Temple  of  Fortune  toward  the  Gate  of  Nola. 
The  researches  in  this  direction  were  rewarded  before  the 
end  of  the  year  by  the  discovery  of  the  house  of  the  Faun, 
one  of  the  finest  private  liouses  in  Pompeii,  without  except- 
ing even  that  of  Pansa.  Behind  it  was  excavated  in  1832 
tlie  house  of  the  Labyrinth.  Further  discoveries  in  this 
directi<3n  about  this  period  were  the  houses  of  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  of  the  black  walls,  and  of  the  figured 
capitals,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Street  of  Fortune.  Opera- 
tions were  also  pursued  in  the  Street  of  the  Augustals.  On 


*  See  Aloe,  Euincs  de  Pompeii,  p.  xlvii. 


54 


POMPEII. 


this  side  was  discovered  (1832 — 33)  the  House  of  tlie  Coloured 
Capitals,  better  known  as  the  House  of  Ariadne,  adjoining  the 
Yico  Storto,  and  extending  from  the  Street  of  the  Aiigustals 
to  that  of  Fortune.  The  Casa  di  AjdoUo,  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Street  of  Mercury,  1835.  In  1837  and  following  years,  a 
good  deal  was  done  in  the  Street  of  the  Tombs ;  but  down  to 
1843  the  excavations  were  principally  continued  in  the 
northernmost  part  of  the  town,  near  the  house  of  Apollo. 
In  that  and  the  following  year  the  street  which  leads  from 
the  Porta  Marina  to  the  Forum,  between  the  Basilica  and 
'lemple  of  Venus,  was  cleared.  Subsequently,  till  1851,  the 
excavations  were  chiefly  continued  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Forum  and  the  Yico  Storto.  In  1847  was  discovered 
the  house  of  M.  Lucretius,  or  of  the  Suonatrice.  The  ex- 
cavations in  this  direction  along  the  Street  of  Stabiee  were 
resumed  in  1851,  and  continued  during  several  subsequent 
years,  as  well  as  in  the  Street  of  Holconius,  which  leads  out  it 
to  the  Street  of  Abundance.  The  Porta  Stabiana  was  dis- 
covered in  1851,  and,  soon  after,  theStabian,  or  Great  Baths. 
Since  the  apj)ointment  of  the  Commendatore  to  the  direction 
of  the  w^orks  in  1860,  operations  have  been  chiefly  carried  on 
in  the  block  of  buildings  formed  by  the  Street  of  Holconius 
on  the  north,  that  of  Isis  on  the  south,  that  of  the  theatres  on 
the  west,  and  that  of  Stabiae  op.  the  east ;  and  the  district 
lying  to  the  north  of  this,  and  comprised  between  the  Street 
of' the  Augustals,  that  of  Abundance,  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Forum,  and  the  Street  of  Stabiae.  The  researches  in  these 
two  districts  have  been  rewarded  by  many  important  dis- 
coveries. In  the  former  have  been  excavated  the  house  of 
Cornelius  Eufus,  and  that  commonly  called  the  house  of 
Holconius;  while  in  the  latter  have  been  discovered  the 
house  of  the  Nuova  Caccia,  of  the  Balcone  Pensile,  of  the 
New  Fountain,  the  Lupanar,  and  other  objects  which  we 
shall  have  occasion  to  mention  in  the  sequel. 


55 


CHAPTEE  III. 

POSITION  OF  POMPEII  ;   ITS  GENERAL  APPEARANCE,  ROADS,  WALLS, 
GATES,  STREETS,  ETC. 

Pompeii  is  situated  on  an  isolated  hill,  or  plateau,  which 
rises  in  the  plain  at  the  southern  foot  of  Mount  Vesuvius. 
This  hill,  which  is  sufficiently  marked  in  form,  though  of 
moderate  size,  must  have  been  produced  by  a  stream  of  lava 
thrown  up  by  Vesuvius  centuries  before  the  foundation  of 
the  city,  and  in  a  period  too  remote  for  memory  or  record. 
On  the  western  side  of  the  town,  or  that  facing  the  sea,  the 
ascent  is  so  abrupt  and  sudden  as  almost  to  resemble  a  cliff ; 
whence  some  writers  have  been  led  to  conclude  that  its  walls 
on  this  side  were  originally  washed  by  the  sea.  In  support 
of  this  oi)inion  it  has  been  said  that  shells  and  sea  sand  have 
been  found  by  digging  on  the  side  adjoining  the  coast ;  and 
it  is  even  asserted  that  rings  have  been  found  close  to  the 
ruins,  intended,  as  is  supposed,  for  the  mooring  of  vessels. 
The  authority  of  Strabo,  in  a  passage  before  quoted,  has 
been  adduced  to  confirm  this  view ;  but  his  words  serve  at 
least  equally  to  prove  that  the  trade  of  the  place  was  carried 
on  by  the  river  Sarnus,  which  runs  past  it  a  little  to  the 
south.  If  so,  however,  this  stream  has  shrunk  among  the 
other  physical  changes  which  have  occurred  in  the  coantry  ; 
for  it  is  now  nothing  more  than  a  rivulet,  entirely  unsuited 
to  any  purposes  of  trade. 

Pompeii  at  present  stands  about  a  mile  from  the  sea,  and 
very  strong  arguments  have  been  adduced  to  prove  that  it 
must  have  been  at  the  same  distance  in  ancient  times.  The 
writers  who  hold  this  opinion  consider  that  the  beds  of 
shells  and  the  rings  said  to  have  been  found  prove  nothing. 
The  shells  may  have  existed  there  long  before  the  foundation 
of  Pompeii ;  and  that  the  rings  asserted  to  have  been  found, 
of  which  there  are  no  longer  .any  traces,  served  for  the 
mooring  of  vessels,  is  a  mere  conjecture.  On  the  other  hand 
it  is  affirmed  that  graves  have  been  found  where  the  harbour 
must  have  existed  ;  and  Overbeck,  one  of  the  latest  writers 


56 


POMPEII. 


on  tlie  subject,  says  tliat  lie  lias  not  only  found  remains  of 
ancient  buildings  several  hundred  paces  on  the  other  side  of 
the  railway  to  the  south  of  Pompeii,  but  also  that  there 
exist,  about  half  a  mile  south-west  of  it,  at  the  mill  near  the 
bridge  over  the  Sarno  and  the  mouth  of  the  canal  which  runs 
to  Torre  iVnnunziata,  some  very  considerable  remains  of 
ancient  foundations,  cisterns,  and  amphorae,  built  into  the 
walls  ;  nay,  that  these  are  even  buried  under  white  lapilli,  or 
pumice  stones,  such  as  could  have  been  thrown  out  only  by 
the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  a.d.  79.*  Nor  can  it  be  said, 
that  if  the  ground  had  the  present  configuration  when  Pom- 
peii was  founded,  the  city  would  have  been  built  by  prefer- 
ence closer  to  the  sea.  The  hill  was  chosen  as  a  stronger 
situation,  as  it  would  have  given  the  command  of  the  city  to 
any  inimical  force  that  might  have  occupied  it.  Another 
argument  may  be  adduced  from  the  circumstance  that  Hercu- 
laneum,  to  the  north  of  Pompeii,  and  Stabiae  (Castellamare), 
to  the  south,  which  were  overwhelmed  by  the  same  eruption, 
still  lie  on  the  margin  of  the  sea,  showing  that  on  both  sides 
of  Pompeii  no  alteration  in  the  coast-line  was  produced  by 
that  catastrophe. 

The  situation  of  Pompeii  appears  to  have  possessed  all 
local  advantages  that  the  most  refined  taste  could  desire. 
Upon  the  verge  of  the  sea,  at  the  entrance  of  a  fertile  plain, 
on  the  bank  of  a  navigable  river,  it  united  the  conveniences 
of  a  commercial  town  with  the  security  of  a  military  station 
and  the  romantic  beauty  of  a  spot  celebrated  in  all  ages  for 
its  pre-eminent  loveliness.  Its  environs,  even  to  the  heights 
of  Vesuvius,  were  covered  with  villas,  and  the  coast,  all  the 
way  to  Naples,  was  so  ornamented  with  gardens  and  villages, 
that  the  shores  of  the  whole  gulf  appeared  as  one  city  ;  while 
the  prodigious  concourse  of  strangers  who  came  here  in 
search  of  health  and  recreation  added  new  charms  and  life  to 
the  scene.  But  these  advantages  were  dearly  purchased. 
An  enemy,  at  that  time  unknown,  was  silently  working  its 
destruction — an  enemy  which,  from  time  to  time,  still  deso- 
lates the  modern  towns  which  stand  upon  the  buried  and  long- 
forgotten  cities  of  antiquity. 

*  Overbeck,  Pompeii,  &c,,  B.  i.,  §  13.  Winckelmann,  in  his  Sendsghreihen 
V.  d.  hercuL  Entdeokungen,  §  17,  doubted  long  ago  that  Pompeii  was  seated 
on  the  sea. 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


57 


The  chief  approach  to  Pompeii  was  on  the  north-west  by 
the  Via  Domitiana,  a  branch  of  the  great  Appian  Way, 
which,  turning  off  at  Sinuessa,  ran  along  the  coast  from 
Naples,  through  Oplontis,  Eetina,  and  Herculanenm,  entering 
Pompeii  by  the  gate  named  after  the  latter  city.  A  second 
road,  issuing  from  the  Gate  of  Nola,  joined  the  Popilian  Way 
at  that  place  ;  while  a  third,  from  the  Gate  of  Stabiae,  divided 
into  two  branches,  one  of  which  ran  to  the  town  of  the  same 
name,  while  the  other  led  to  Nuceria.  These  seem  to  have 
been  the  chief  approaches,  though  of  course  there  were  roads 
leading  to  all  the  other  gates. 

The  city  was  anciently  surrounded  with  walls,  of  which 
the  greater  jiortion  has  been  traced.  Its  general  figure,  as 
defined  by  them,  is  something  like  that  of  an  egg,  v/hose 
apex  is  at  the  amphitheatre.  Its  circuit  is  nearly  two  miles, 
the  greatest  length  little  more  than  three  quarters  of  a  mile, 
and  the  breadth  less  than  half  a  mile.  Even  Arrius  Dio- 
medcs,  who  lived  at  the  extremity  of  the  suburb,  would  only 
have  had  about  six  hundred  yards  to  walk  to  the  Forum  for 
his  business,  and  less  than  a  mile  to  the  am2)hitheatre  for 
his  pleasure.  The  area  of  the  city  is  about  one  hundred  and 
sixty-one  acres  ;  the  excavated  part,  which  lies  on  the  western 
side,  is  rather  more  than  a  third  of  the  whole,  and  has  been 
one  hundred  and  eighteen  years  in  excavating ;  so  that  new 
discoveries  may  still  await  our  great-grandsons. 

The  course  of  the  walls  has  been  traced  and  ascertained 
by  excavation.  From  the  Gate  of  Herculaueum  they  pro- 
ceeded in  an  easterly  direction  to  the  amphitheatre,  and 
thence  along  the  south  side  of  the  city  to  the  quarter  of  the 
theatres ;  but  from  this  point,  and  along  all  the  western  side, 
they  have  been  pulled  down  since  ancient  times,  and  their 
place  has  been  occupied  on  the  west  by  the  large  three-storied 
houses  built  in  terrace  fashion  on  the  steep  declivity  of  the  hill. 
For  the  greater  part  of  their  circuit  the  walls  are  curvilinear, 
avoiding  all  sharp  angles  as  much  as  possible,  in  accordance 
with  the  principle  of  fortification  laid  down  by  Yitruvius, 
that  it  is  desirable  to  avoid  sharp  angles,  as  offering  more 
protection  to  the  besiegers  than  to  the  besieged.*    On  many 

*  Directly  the  reverse  is  recommended  by  V^getius,  wlio  further  advises 
that  towers  should  be  placed  at  the  salient  angles,  for  the  advantage  of  taking 
the  enemy  in  flank. 


58 


POMPEII. 


of  the  stones  certain  cliaracters  have  been  found,  intended, 
apparently,  as  directions  to  the  workmen,  which  are  said  by 
M.  Mazois  to  be  either  Oscan  or  the  most  ancient  forms  of 
the  Greek  alphabet ;  whence  some  authorities  have  drawn 
the  conclusion  that  the  walls  must  be  referred  to  a  period 
antecedent  to  the  Etruscan  occupation  of  this  part  of  Italy, 
and  that  they  may  probably  be  Pelasgic.  Other  ^Titers 
again  are  of  opinion  that  there  are  no  grounds  for  referring 
them  to  so  remote  an  age.  They  allow,  indeed,  that  they 
must  be  of  very  considerable  antiquity,  and  built  in  the 
times  of  Oscan  independence,  though  they  deny  that  the 
marks  on  the  stones  before  alluded  to  bear  any  resemblance 
to  the  Oscan  al2:)habet,  and  consider  them  to  have  been  mere 
arbitrary  marks  of  the  stone-masons.*  It  should  be  observed, 
however,  that  the  towers  and  some  parts  of  the  walls  are  of 
a  much  later  age  than  the  remainder.  These,  which  are 
probably  repairs  of  the  damage  inflicted  by  Sulla  in  the 
Social  War,  consist  of  what  is  called  ojnis  incertum ;  that  is, 
stones,  mostly  tufo  or  lava,  broken  into  small  pieces,  cemented 
with  mortar,  and  covered  with  a  coating  of  stucco,  so  as  to 
resemble  the  primitive  walls  ;  as  may  still  be  observed  in 
some  places. 

With  the  exception  of  these  restored  parts,  the  structure  of 
the  walls  is  similar  throughout,  and  consists  of  large  well- 
hewn  pieces  of  stone — in  the  lower  courses  Travertine,  in  the 
upper  Piperino.  They  are  fitted  together  without  mortar, 
and  join  one  another  vertically  in  a  somewhat  oblique  direc- 
tion, so  that  the  surface  of  each  stone  is  usually  a  rhomboid  or 
trapezium. 

Within  this  external  wall,  with  towers  at  intervals,  the 
usual  defence  of  the  most  ancient  Italian  cities,  there  was 
thrown  up  an  agger,  or  earthen  mound,  which  Yitruvius 
considered,  when  properly  combined  with  masonry,  proof 
against  the  battering-ram,  or  mining,  or  any  known  method 
of  assault.  His  directions  for  constructing  it  are  as  follows. 
A  ditch  is  to  be  dug  as  large  and  deep  as  possible,  the  sides 
perpendicular  and  walled.  The  earth  is  heaped  up  on  the 
inside,  and  supported  both  within  and  without  by  walls  strong 
enough  to  bear  its  thrust,  bonded   together,  for  farther 


*  Overbeck,  Pomp.  B.  ii.  §  50« 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


59 


security,  by  internal  cross  walls,  between  whicli  tlie  excavated 
material  must  be  firmly  rammed  down,  that  it  may  still  offer 
substantial  resistance,  even  when  the  external  masonry  has 
been  ruined.  A  considerable  breadth  is  to  be  allowed  for 
this  raised  platform,  so  that  cohorts  may  have  room  to  fight 
along  its  whole  extent,  as  if  ranged  for  battle.*  The  Wi^lls 
of  Pompeii  answer  this  description ;  but  there  is  no  outer 
ditch,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  one  ever  existed,  or  whether 
it  was  filled  up  in  later  times.  This  construction,  however, 
does  not  extend  to  the  south  side  of  the  city,  which  was  less 
exposed  to  the  attack  of-  military  engines,  and  therefore  re- 
quired less  strength.  On  the  north  and  north-east,  the  ram- 
parts of  Pompeii,  as  shown  in  the  annexed  cut,  consisted  of 
an  earthen  terrace  (b)  fourteen  feet  wide,  walled  and  counter- 


Restored  section  of  the  walls  and  agger  of  Pompeii. 


walled,  which  was  ascended  from  the  city  by  flights  of  steps 
(c),  broad  enough  for  several  men  abreast.  The  external 
face  (a),  including  the  parapet,  was  about  twenty-five  feet  high ; 
the  inner  wall  was  raised  some  feet  higher.  The  external 
wall  is  inclined  slightly  towards  the  city ;  the  lower  courses, 
instead  of  being  inclined,  are  set  slightly  back,  one  behind 
another.    The  style  of  masonry  we  have  already  described. 

Both  walls  were  capped  with  battlements,  so  that  from  the 
country  there  was  an  appearance  of  a  double  line  of  defence, 
but  the  interior  was  useless  except  to  give  a  more  formidable 
aspect  to  the  fortifications.  These  battlements  were  in- 
geniously contrived  to  defend  the  soldiers,  who  could  throw 
their  missiles  through  the  embrasure  in  comparative  safety. 


*  Vitruv.  i.  5. 


60 


POMPEII. 


being  protected  bj  u  return  or  shoulder  of  the  battlement 
projecting  inward.  The  towers,  as  we  have  said,  are  of  less 
ancient  date.  They  are  quadrangular,  contrary  to  the  rule 
laid  down  by  Yitruvius,  who  says  that  towers  ought  to  be 


circular  or  polygonal.  Square  towers  are  sooner  breached, 
because  the  battering-ram  breaks  their  angles  ;  round  ones  it 
cannot  hurt,  but  merely  drives  the  stones,  which  should  be 
cut  wedge-like,  towards  their  common  centre."*    He  also 


*  Vitruv.  i.  5. 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


61 


recommends  that  they  should  be  placed  at  no  greater  intervals 
than  the  cast  of  a  javelin,  so  as  to  give  one  another  mutual 
support,  and  flank  the  enemy  in  case  of  assault.  This  prin- 
ciple has  been  adhered  to  between  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum 
and  that  of  Vesuvius,  where  they  are  only  eighty  paces 
distant  from  each  other,  but  towards  the  east  the  distance  is 
two,  three,  and  even  four  hundred  and  eighty  paces.  We 
may  suppose,  therefore,  that  the  ground  in  this  quarter  pre- 
sented some  difficulty  to  the  approach  of  machines.  All  of 
them  have  arcliways,  allowing  a  free  passage  along  the  agger, 
and  are  furnished  with  a  sallyport ;  all  are  alike,  and  each 
consists  of  several  stories.    The  walls  and  t  jwers  are  much 


View  of  the  wall  and  towers  from  without. 


ruined.  It  is  impossible  to  attribute  this  entirely  to  the 
earthquakes  which  preceded  and  accompanied  the  eruption  of 
79.  The  outer  wall  of  the  towers  seems  invariably  to  have 
fallen.  Sir  W.  Gell  conjectures  that  it  was  demolished  by 
Sulla  at  the  end  of  the  Social  War,  as  the  readiest  means  of 
rendering  the  fortifications  useless.  Probably  the  place  had 
been  dismantled  at  different  periods,  as  various  breaches  and 
repairs  seem  to  indicate.  For  some  time  before  its  cata- 
strophe, defences  seem  to  have  been  thought  unnecessary ;  for 
if  they  ever  existed,  as  most  likely  they  did,  on  the  seaward 
side,  they  had  been  thrown  down,  and  handsome  houses, 
often  four  or  five  stories  high,  erected  on  their  site.  The 
long  peace,  which  Italy  enjoyed  under  Augustus  and  his 
immediate  successors,  rendered  fortifications  useless,  and  it 
is  probable  that  during  that  period  it  became  convenient  to 
enlarge  the  city  by  destroying  them.    At  all  events  it  is 


62 


POMPEII. 


certain  that,  in  the  later  period  of  its  existence,  Pompeii  was 
an  open  town. 

The  construction  of  the  upper  part  of  the  walls,  and  the 
battlements  of  the  ramparts,  evince  an  improved  knowledge 
in  the  science  of  building,  and  point  out  a  period  much  more 


Masonry  of  Pompeii.  Isodumon,  or  regular  masonry  of  the 

Grteka, 

modern  than  that  of  the  lower  part ;  being  composed  of  the 
isodomon,  or  regular  masonry  of  the  Greeks,  above  the  more 
ancient  basis.  Some  portions,  however,  of  the  upper  wall 
consist,  as  we  have  already  observed,  of  masonry  of  that 


7  7       7  1 


■  \  /.___ 

\  / 
/ 

rr  \  \/\ 

1 
1 

1 

\ 

.  \  •  ... 

\       \      \       '  1 

i  / 

/ 

1 

1 

Greek  wall,  similar  in  construction  to  the  v.alls  of  Pompeii* 


kind  called  by  the  ancients  opus  Incerhm,  composed  of  small 
rough  pieces,  placed  irregularly,  and  imbedded  in  a  large 
quantity  of  mortar,  resembling  the  flint  and  rubble  masonry 

^  Dodwell's  Travels  in  Greece. 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


63. 


of  our  castles  and  churclie=J  The  difference  of  construction 
observable  in  the  wall  and  towers  shows  that  the  latter  are 
of  much  later  date.  This  is  what  we  should  expect.  The 
most  ancient  Greek  fortifications,  those  of  Tiryns  and  Mycense, 
are  without  towers  ;*  in  those  more  recent,  as  at  Orchomenus 
and  Daulis,  towers  occur,  but  at  considerable  distances,  and 
of  small  elevation.  It  was  not  until  a  much  later  period 
that  they  were  built  at  regular  intervals,  and  of  commanding 
height,  as  at  Platsea,  Messene,  and  other  cities. f 

There  are  seven  gates  in  the  length  of  wall  which  now 
exists,  besides  what  is  called  the  Porta  dclla  Marina,  or  Sea 
Gate,  on  the  western  side,  now  the  principal  entrance.  They 
are  all,  except  two,  of  Eoman  construction.  The  first  and 
most  important  stood  at  the  north-western  angle  of  the  city, 
and  led  to  Herculaneum,  whence  it  has  been  called  the  Her- 
culaneum  Gate.  For  about  a  furlong  from  the  entrance  the 
road  is  bordered  with  tombs,  as  is  the  Appian  Way  where  it 
issues  from  Eome.  The  gate  is  double,  so  that  when  the 
first  doors  had  been  carried,  the  assailcrs  could  be  attacked 
from  a  large  opening  above,  and  destroyed  while  attempting 
to  force  the  second.  Strong  buttresses  of  stone  sustain  the 
lateral  pressure  of  the  earthen  rampart,  which  is  ascended 
from  the  interior  by  ten  very  high  and  inconvenient  steps. 
This  gate  in  its  arrangement  resembles  Temple  Bar :  there 
is  a  large  central  and  two  small  side  entrances,  which,  instead 
of  being  open  to  the  sky,  like  the  central  road,  were  vaulted 
through  their  whole  length.  The  inner  gate  consisted  of 
folding  doors,  as  the  holes  in  the  pavement,  in  which  the 
pivots  turned  which  served  for  hinges,  evidently  show ;  the 
outer  defence  was  formed  by  a  portcullis.  The  archway  is 
constructed  in  brick  and  lava,  in  alternate  layers,  and  covered 
with  a  fine  white  stucco.  This,  although  the  principal 
entrance  to  the  city,  is  not  striking  for  its  beauty,  and  is 
small  in  its  dimensions.  The  stucco  is  covered  with  nearly 
illegible  inscriptions  of  ordinances,  &c.  The  centre  archway 
is  in  width  fourteen  feet  seven  inches,  and  might,  perhaps, 
have  been  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  in  height ;  but  its  arch 

*  Excopt  at  Tiryns,  where  the  gate  is  flanked  by  a  solid  tower  ;  it  is  hardly 
more,  however,  than  a  projection  in  the  wall.  See  the  Ground  Plan  in  Cell's 
*  Argolis.' 

I  Mazois. 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


65 


does  not  remain.  The  smaller  openings  on  each  side  for  foot 
passengers  were  four  feet  six  inches  wide,  and  ten  feet  high ; 
in  size,  therefore,  it  scarcely  equals  Temple  Bar.  The  road 
rises  considerably  into  the  city.  On  the  left,  before  entering 
the  gate,  is  a  pedestal,  which  appears  to  have  been  placed  for 
the  purpose  of  sustaining  a  colossal  statue  of  bronze,  some 
fragments  of  bronze  drapery  having  been  found  there.  We 
may  suppose  it  to  have  been  the  tutelary  deity  of  the  city.* 

Proceeding  from  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum  in  an  easterly 
direction  round  the  walls,  the  remaining  gates  occur  in  the 
following  order :  the  Gate  of  Vesuvius,  the  Gate  of  Capua, 
the  Gate  of  Nola,  the  Gate  of  the  Saruus,  the  Gate  of  Nuceria, 
and  the  Gate  of  Stabiae,  or  the  Theatres.  From  this  point, 
as  we  have  said,  the  wall  can  no  longer  be  traced ;  but  there 
is,  on  the  western  side,  an  eighth  entrance  to  the  city,  which 
has  been  called  the  Porta  della  Marina,  or  Sea  Gate. 

Of  these  gates,  only  those  of  Nola  and  of  the  Theatres 
need  arrest  our  attention,  as  being  evidently  older  than  the 
rest,  and  previous  to  the  Horn  an  occupation.  The  gate  of 
Nola  has  one  or  two  remarkable  iDeculiarities.  It  does  not 
begin,  like  that  of  Herculaneum,  at  the  outer  line  of  wall, 
but  beyond  the  inner,  at  the  end  of  a  passage  formed  by 
strong  masonry,  and  not  much  broader  than  the  entry  of  the 
door  itself.  Hence  it  resembles  the  Gate  of  the  Lions  at 
Mycenae.  It  was  double,  like  that  of  Herculaneum,  but  the 
outer  gate  has  been  destroyed,  and  the  second  is  a  recon- 
struction of  the  same  date  as  the  towers.  The  mode  in  which 
this  gate  is  constructed  afforded  a  great  advantage  to  the 
garrison  over  their  assailants,  who  could  only  approach  it  in 
slender  columns,  and  exposed  on  each  side  to  the  arrows 
and  javelins  of  the  defenders.  Another  peculiarity  in  this 
gate  is  that  it  does  not  cut  the  wall  at  a  right,  but  at  an 
acute  angle ;  as  the  wall  at  this  part  slants  off  in  a  south- 
easterly direction,  whilst  the  street  which  leads  to  the  gate 
runs  nearly  east. 

Viewed  from  within,  this  gate  displays  two  different  con- 
structions, part  of  it  being  of  square  blocks  of  hewn  stone, 
and  part,  of  a  more  recent  date,  of  brick.  The  key-stone  of 
the  arch  is  adorned,  according  to  Etruscan  custom,  with  a 

»  Sir  W.  Cell,  p.  93. 


66 


POMPEII. 


head  in  tigli  relief,  mucli  damaged  by  the  weather.  If  this 
keystone  belonged  to  the  original  gate,  which  there  seems  no 
reasonable  ground  to  doubt,  it  must  be  one  of  the  oldest  in 
Pompeii.  The  Oscan  inscription  beside  it  appears,  however, 
not  to  be  in  its  right  place,  and  was  probably  placed  there 
when  the  gate  was  restored.  M.  de  Clarac  *  and  others  have 
translated  this  inscription  as  follows:  Caius  Popirius,  son 
of  Caius,  Medixtuticus,  restored  this  gate  and  consecrated  it 
to  Isis ;"  an  interpretation  from  which  the  gate  has  also 
sometimes  obtained  the  appellation  of  the  "  Gate  of  Isis." 
But  this  important  and  somewhat  ludicrous  error  arose 
from  a  mistranslation  of  the  last  two  words,  isidu  prupliatted, 
which  have  no  relation  to  Isis.  The  w^hole  translation  ought 
to  run :  Vibius  Popidius,  son  of  Yibius,  Medixtuticus, 
caused  this  (building)  to  be  erected,  and  the  same  approved 

it."t 

The  gate  near  the  Theatres,  called  the  Gate  of  Stabise,  was 
discovered  in  1851.  The  walls  which  flank  it  are  of  very 
ancient  construction,  being  built  of  large  square  blocks  of 
hewn  stone,  put  together  without  mortar.  This  gate  was  not 
closed  by  a  portcullis,  but  by  strong  double  doors,  as  is  plain 
from  the  holes  for  the  bolts.  An  Oscan  inscription,  found  on 
a  square  stone  of  travertine  in  this  gateway,  conveys  some 
important  information  about  Pompeian  topography.  It  has 
been  interpreted  as  follows  by  the  Commendatore  Quaranta  : — 

P.  SITTIUS  M.  F.  X.  PONTIUS  P.  F. 
^DILES  HANG  VIAM  TERMINA 
VERUNT  ANTE  POPvTAM  STABIA 
NAM  VlJE  TERMINU]\I  STATUERUNT  PED 
X.  IPSI  VIAM  POMPEIANAM  TER.MINA 
VERUNT  PEDES  III.  ANTE  CA 
LAM  JOYIS  MEILICHII  HAS  YI 
AS  ET  YIAM  JOYIAM  ET  DECUMANAM  YIA 
RUM  CURATORES  A  POMPEIANIS 
SERYIS  FIERI  FECERUNT  IP 
SI  .EDILES  PROBAYERUNT. 

That  is :  The  ^diles,  Publius  Sittius,  son  of  Marcus,  and 
Numerius  Pontius,  son  of  Publius,  laid  down  the  limits  of 
this  street,  and  fixed  the  terminus  of  it  ten  feet  beyond  the 


*  Pompeii y  8vo,  1313. 


t  Overbeck,  B.  i.  S.  57. 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


67 


Stabian  Gate.  They  also  ifixed  the  limits  of  the  Via  Pom- 
peiana  three  feet  before  the  enclosure  of  Jupiter  Meilichius. 
These  streets,  as  well  as  the  Jovia  and  Decumana,  were  con- 
structed by  the  public  slaves  of  Pompeii,  under  the  direction 
of  the  surveyors  of  the  streets,  and  the  same  SBdiles  approved 
of  them. 

From  this  we  learn  that  the  gate  we  are  treating  of  bore 
in  ancient  times  the  name  of  Stabiana,  and  that  there  were 
three  streets,  named  respectively,  Pompeiana,  Jovia,  and  De- 
cumana, which,  or  at  all  events  some  of  them,  probably  led  to 
gates  of  the  same  name.  We  learn  also  that  Jupiter  Jileili- 
chius  had  a  temple  in  Pompeii. 

The  Porta  della  Marina,  or  Sen,  Gate,  consists  of  a  long 
vaulted  passage,  through  which  a  steep  and  narrow  ascent 
leads  towards  the  Forum.  For  the  convenience  of  foot- 
passengers,  an  elevated  footway,  ascended  by  steps,  ran  along 
the  left-hand  side  of  it.  On  the  other  side  are  some  ancient 
buildings,  which  are  being  converted  into  a  local  museum. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  describe  the  general  aspect  of  the 
city,  and  for  this  purpose  it  will  be  convenient  to  suppose 
that  we  have  entered  it  by  the  gate  of  Hcrculaneum,  though 
in  other  respects  the  Porta  della  Marina  is  the  more  usual, 
and,  perhaps,  the  best  entrance. 

On  entering,  the  visitor  finds  himself  in  a  street,  running  a 
little  east  of  south,  which  leads  to  the  Forum.  To  the  right, 
stands  a  house  formerly  owned  by  a  musician  ;  to  the  left,  a 
thermopolium  or  shop  for  hot  drinks ;  beyond  is  the  house 
of  the  Vestals  ;  beyond  this  the  custom-house  ;  and  a  little 
further  on,  where  another  street  runs  into  this  one  from  the 
north  at  a  very  acute  angle,  stands  a  public  fountain.  In  the 
last-named  street  is  a  surgeon's  house ;  at  least  one  so  named 
from  the  quantity  of  surgical  instruments  found  in  it,  all 
made  of  bronze.  On  the  right  or  western  side  of  the  street, 
by  which  we  entered,  the  houses,  as  we  have  said,  are  built 
on  the  declivity  of  a  rock,  and  are  several  stories  high. 

The  fountain  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  yards  from 
the  city  gate.  About  the  same  distance,  further  on,  the  street 
divides  into  two ;  the  right-hand  turning  seems  a  by-street, 
the  left-hand  turning  conducts  you  to  the  Forum.  The  most 
important  feature  in  this  space  is  a  house  called  the  house  of 
Sallust  or  of  Actaeon,  from  a  painting  in  it  representing  that 


68 


POMPEII. 


hunter's  death.  It  stands  on  an  area  about  forty  yards 
square,  and  is  encompassed  on  three  sides  by  streets ;  by  that 
namely  which  we  have  been  describing,  by  another  nearly 
parallel  to  it,  and  by  a  third,  perpendicular  to  these  two. 
The  whole  quarter  at  present  excavated,  as  far  as  the  Street 
of  the  Baths,  continued  by  the  Street  of  Fortune,  is  divided, 
by  six  longitudinal  and  one  transverse  street,  into  what  the 
Romans  called  islands,  or  insulated  masses  of  houses.  Two 
of  these  are  entirely  occupied  by  the  houses  of  Pansa  and  of 
the  Faun,  which,  w^ith  their  courts  ani  gardens,  are  about 
one  hundred  yards  long  by  forty  wide. 

From  the  Street  of  the  Baths  and  that  of  Fortune,  which 
bound  these  islands  on  the  south,  two  streets  lead  to  the  two 
corners  of  the  Forum ;  between  them  are  baths,  occupying 
nearly  the  whole  island.  Among  other  buildings  are  a  milk- 
shop  and  gladiatorial  school.  At  the  north-east  corner  of 
the  Forum  was  a  triumphal  arch.  At  the  end  of  the  Street 
of  the  Baths  and  beginning  of  that  of  Fortune,  another 
triumphal  arch  is  still  to  be  made  out,  spanning  the  street  of 
Mercury,  so  that  this  was  plainly  the  way  of  state  into  the 
city.  The  Forum  is  distant  from  the  gate  of  Herculaneum 
about  four  hundred  yards.  Of  it  we  shall  give  a  full  descrip- 
tion in  its  place.  Near  the  south-eastern  corner  two  streets 
enter  it,  one  running  to  the  south,  the  other  to  the  east.  We 
will  follow  the  former  for  about  eighty  yards,  when  it  turns 
eastward  for  two  hundred  yards,  ard  conducts  us  to  the 
quarter  of  the  theatres.  The  other  street,  which  runs  east- 
ward from  the  Forum,  is  of  more  importance,  and  is  called 
the  Street  of  the  Silversmiths  ;*  at  the  end  of  which  a  short 
street  turns  southwards,  and  meets  the  other  route  to  the 
theatres.  On  both  these  routes  the  houses  immediately 
bordering  on  the  streets  are  cleared  ;  but  between  them  is  a 
large  rectangular  plot  of  unexplored  ground.  Two  very 
elegant  houses  at  the  south-west  corner  of  the  Forum  were 
uncovered  by  the  French  general  Championnet,  w^hile  in 
command  at  Naples,  and  are  known  by  his  name.  On  the 
western  side  of  the  Forum  two  streets  led  down  towards  the 
sea:  the  excavations  here  consist  almost  entirely  of  public 
buildings,  which  will  be  described  hereafter. 


*  Now  the  Street  of  Abundance. 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


69 


The  quarter  of  the  theatres  comprises  a  large  temple, 
called  the  Temple  of  Neptune  or  Hercules,  a  temple  of  Isis,  a 
temple  of  iEsculapius,  two  theatres,  the  Triangular  Forum, 
and  the  quarters  of  the  soldiers  or  gladiators.  On  the  north 
and  east  it  is  bounded  by  streets ;  to  the  south  and  west  it 
seems  to  have  been  enclosed  partly  by  the  town  walls,  partly 
by  its  own.  Here  the  continuous  excavation  ends,  and  we 
must  cross  vineyards  to  the  amphitheatre,  distant  from  the 
theatre  about  five  hundred  and  fifty  yards,  in  the  south-east 
corner  of  the  city,  close  to  the  walls,  and  in  an  a.rigle  formed 
by  them.  Close  to  the  amphitheatre  are  traces  of  walls  sup- 
posed to  have  belonged  to  a  Forum  Boarium,  or  cattle  market. 
Near  at  hand,  a  considerable  building,  called  the  villa  of 
Julia  Felix,  has  been  excavated  and  filled  up  again  (1756). 
On  the  walls  of  it  was  discovered  the  following  inscription, 
which  may  serve  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  wealth  of  some  of 
the  Pompeian  proprietors  : — 

In  Praedis  Juli^  Sp.  F.  Felicis 
locantur 

Balneum  Venerium  et  Nongentum  Tabern^e  Pergul^ 
CcENACULA  Ex  Idibus  Aug  Primis 
In  idus  Aug.  Sextus  Annos  Continuos  Quinque 
S.  Q.  D.  L.  E.  N.  C* 

That  is :  on  the  estate  of  Julia  Felix,  daughter  of  Spurius, 
are  to  be  let  a  bath,  a  venereum,|  nine  hundred  shops,  with 
booths  J  and  garrets,  for  a  term  of  five  continuous  years, 
from  the  first  to  the  sixth  of  the  Ides  of  August.  The 
formula,  S.  Q.  D.  L.  E.  N.  C,  with  which  the  advertisement 
concludes,  is  thought  to  stand  for — si  quis  domi  lenocinium 
exerceat  ne  conducito  :  lot  no  one  apply  who  keeps  a  brothel. 

A  little  to  the  south  of  the  smaller  theatre  was  discovered, 
in  1851,  the  Gate  of  Stabile,  which  we  have  already  described. 
Hence  a  long  straight  street,  which  has  been  called  the  Street 
of  Stabia),  traversed  the  whole  breadth  of  the  city,  till  it 
issued  out  on  the  northern  side  at  the  gate  of  Vesuvius.  It 

*  Pomp.  Ant.  Hist.  t.  i.  p.  38. 

f  A  venereum  was  that  i)art  of  a  house  appropriated  to  the  female 
members  of  a  Aimily. 

X  The  meaning  of  pergulce  is  not  clearly  ascertained.  It  probably  denotes 
some  kind  of  open  workshop. 


70 


POMPEn. 


has  been  cleared  to  the  point  where  it  intersects  the  Streets 
of  Fortune  and  of  Nola,  which,  with  the  Street  of  the  Baths, 
traverse  the  city  in  its  length.  The  Street  of  Stabile  forms 
the  boundary  of  the  excavations  ;  all  that  part  of  Pompeii 
which  lies  to  the  east  of  it,  with  the  exception  of  the  am- 
phitheatre, and  the  line  forming  the  Street  of  Nola,  being 
still  occupied  by  vineyards  and  cultivated  fields.  On  the 
other  hand,  that  part  of  the  city  lying  to  the  west  of  it  has 
been  for  the  most  part  disinterred  ;  though  there  are  still 
some  portions  lying  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  Street  of 
Abundance  and  the  Forum,  and  to  the  east  of  the  Yico  Storto, 
which  remain  to  be  excavated. 

The  streets  of  Pompeii  are  paved  with  large  irregular  pieces 
of  lava  joined  neatly  together,  in  which  the  chariot  wheels 
have  worn  ruts,  still  discernible ;  in  some  j)laces  they  are  an 
inch  and  a  half  deep,  and  in  the  narrow  streets  follow  one 
track  ;  w^here  the  streets  are  wider,  the  ruts  are  more  nume- 
rous and  irregular,  as  shown  in  the  annexed  illustration, 
presenting  a  fac-simile  of  the  pavement.     In  those  places 


Plan  of  the  pavement,  showing  the  ruts,  &c. 


where  several  pieces  of  lava  met  in  one  point,  and  where,  in 
process  of  time,  a  hole  was  made,  the  ancients  have  repaired 
the  injuiy  with  pieces  of  iron,  w^hich  still  remain  in  the 
angles.  This  method  has  generally  been  adopted  throughout 
the  city.    The  width  of  the  streets  varies  from  eight  or  nine 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


71 


feet  to  about  twenty-two,  including  the  footpaths  or  trottoirs. 
In  many  places  they  are  so  narrow  that  they  may  be  crossed 
at  one  stride  :  where  they  are  wider,  a  raised  stepping-stone, 
and  sometimes  two  or  three,  have  been  placed  in  the  centre  of 
the  crossing.  These  stones,  though  in  the  middle  of  the  carriage 
way,  did  not  much  inconvenience  those  who  drove  about  in 
the  biga,  or  two-horsed  chariot,  as  the  wheels  passed  freely 
in  the  spaces  left,  while  the  horses,  being  loosely  harnessed, 
might  either  have  stepped  over  the  stones  or  passed  by  the 
sides.  The  kerb-stones  are  elevated  from  one  foot  to  eighteen 


inches,  and  separate  the  foot-pavement  from  the  road. 
Throughout  the  city  there  is  hardly  a  street  unfurnished 
with  this  convenience.  Where  there  is  width  to  admit  of  a 
broad  foot-23ath,  the  interval  between  the  curb  and  the  line 
of  building  is  filled  up  with  earth,  wdiich  has  then  been 
covered  over  with  stucco,  and  sometimes  with  a  coarse  mosaic 
of  brickwork.  Here  and  there  traces  of  this  sort  of  pave- 
ment still  remain,  especially  in  those  streets  which  were 
protected  by  porticoes. 

The  area  of  the  Forum  or  principal  square  was  not  paved 
like  the  streets,  but  was  covered  with  large  regular  slabs  of 
marble.  These  were  joined  together  and  laid  with  great 
accuracy ;  but  they  apj)ear  to  have  been  stripped  oif  in 
ancient  times,  and  only  a  little  remains  of  them  on  the  east 
side,  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter. 

Before  describing  the  Forum,  we  wdll  add  a  few  notices  with 
respect  to  the  external  appearance  of  tlic  houses  and  the 
aspect  of  the  streets.  Except  in  those  quarters  where  the 
public  buildings  were  collected  and  grouped  together,  there 


Biga. 


Plan  of  the  stepping-stone 
in  the  narrow  bireet. 


a,  Stepping  stone  ;  d,  Kerb. 


72 


POMPEII. 


can  have  been  nothing  striking  or  magnificent  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  place.  The  houses  were  of  small  height,  and  ex- 
ternally gloomy ;  the  lower  part  being  usually  a  blank  wall, 
plastered  over,  and  often  painted  with  dilferent  colours  ;  the 
upper  pierced  with  small  windows  to  light  the  apartments  on 
the  first  floor.  Such  is  the  exterior  of  which  we  now  give  a 
portion  :  it  is  taken  from  the  house  known  by  the  name  of 
the  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet,  and  represents  the  outer 
wall,  with  a  small  window  which  lighted  a  room  called  the 


Cue  of  the  windows  of  the  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet. 

library,  opening  to  the  peristyle.  The  windows  (for  it 
forms  one  of  a  range  of  windows  on  the  same  level)  are  six 
feet  six  inches  above  the  foot-pavement,  which  is  raised  one 
foot  seven  inches  above  the  centre  of  the  street.  They  are 
small,  being  scarcely  three  feet  high  by  two.  At  the  side  a 
wooden  frame  is  to  be  observed,  in  which  the  window,  if  the 
aperture  were  glazed,  or  if  not,  a  shutter  might  at  pleasure 
be  moved  backwards  and  forwards.    The  lower  part  of  the 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


74 


POMPEII. 


wall  is  occupied  by  a  range  of  red  panels  four  feet  and  a  half 
liigh.  The  tiling  upon  the  wall  is  modern,  and  merely  in- 
tended to  preserve  it  from  the  action  of  weather.  Oui'  view 
is  taken  from  the  alley  between  this  house  and  the  house  of 
Pansa.  The  alley  is  only  fifteen  feet  wide,  of  which  space  one 
half  is  occupied  by  footpaths,  leaving  but  seven  feet  six 
inches  for  the  carriage-way.  Expense  and  ornament  were 
reserved  for  the  interior,  on  which  they  were  profusely  la- 
vished :  not  a  house  yet  found  in  Pomj^eii  has  any  pretension 
to  architectm'al  merit  on  the  score  of  its  elevation ;  not  a 
house  yet  found  is  ornamented  vdth.  a  portico.  The  villa  of 
Diomedes  possesses  a  porch,  formed  by  one  detached  column 
on  each  side  of  the  doorway,  and  this  is  the  only  approximation 
to  a  portico  in  the  place.  The  annexed  view  ^p.  73),  taken  in 
the  Street  of  Mercury,  will  give  a  better  idea  than  a  long 
description  could  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  disinterred 
city.*  This  is  one  of  the  widest  streets  in  the  place,  and 
the  scantiness  of  its  proportions,  as  compared  with  the  streets 
of  modern  Eui'ope,  may  be  estimated  by  comparing  the 
breadth  of  the  opening  with  the  height  of  the  shattered  walls 
on  either  side.  The  street  is  that  laid  down  in  the  plan  as 
the  fom'th  eastward  from  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum,  and  does 
not  exceed  thirty  feet  in  width.  The  view  is  taken  near  the 
city  wall,  looking  southward  along  the  street  towards  the 
Forum.  In  the  middle  distance  is  the  triumphal  arch  adjoin- 
ing the  house  of  Zephyrus  and  Flora,  through  which  is  faintly 
seen  the  second  triumphal  arch  at  the  entrance  of  the  Forum. 
The  first  house  on  the  left,  a  part  of  which  only  is  included, 
is  that  hereafter  to  be  described  as  the  House  of  the  Queestor, 
otherwise  called  the  House  of  the  DioscuTi,  or  sons  of  Jupiter, 
Castor  and  Pollux.  Beyond  it  are  the  indications  of  a  cross 
street  on  each  side  of  the  main  one.  In  the  distance  is 
Mount  Lactarius.  The  name  of  the  street  was  derived  from 
a  painting  on  one  of  the  houses  of  Mercury  bearing  a  purse, 
as  in  the  annexed  cut. 

The  street  running  from  the  Temple  of  Fortune  to  the 
Forum,  called  the  Street  of  the  Forum,  and  forming  a  con- 

*  This  view,  together  with  some  others  which  will  occur  in  the  course  of  the 
volume,  is  copied,  by  permission  of  the  publishers,  from  the  second  series  of 
Sir  William  Gell's  Pompeiana.  At  present,  however,  the  prospect  is  somewhat 
altered,  owing  pi-incipally  to  the  disappearance  of  the  trees. 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


75 


tinuation  of  that  of  Mercury,  has  furnished  an  unusually  rich 
harvest  of  various  utensils.  A  long  list  of  these  is  given  by 
Sir  W.  Gell,  according  to  which  there  were  found  no  less 


Vignette  of  Mercury. 


than  two  hundred  and  fifty  small  bottles  of  inferior  glass, 
with  numerous  other  articles  of  the  same  material,  which  it 
would  be  tedious  to  particularise. 

A  marble  statue  of  a  laughing  faun,  two  bronze  figures  of 
Mercury,  the  one  tliree  inches  and  the  other  four  inches  high, 
and  a  statue  of  a  female  nine  inches  high,  were  also  found, 
together  with  many  bronze  lamps  and  stands.  We  may  add 
vases,  basins  with  handles,  paterae,  bells,  elastic  springs, 
hinges,  buckles  for  harness,  a  lock,  an  inkstand,  and  a  strigil ; 
gold  earrings  and  a  silver  spoon ;  an  oval  cauldron,  a  sauce- 
pan, a  mould  for  pastry,  and  a  weight  of  alabaster  used  in 
spinning,  with  its  ivory  axis  remaining.  The  catalogue 
finishes  with  a  leaden  weight,  forty-nine  lamps  of  common 
clay  ornamented  with  masks  and  animals,  forty-five  lamps 
for  two  wicks,  three  boxes  with  a  slit  to  keep  money  in,  in 
one  of  which  were  found  thirteen  coins  of  Titus,  Vespasian, 


76 


POMPEII. 


and  Domitian.  Among  the  most  curious  things  discovered, 
were  seven  glazed  plates  found  packed  in  straw.  There  were 
also  seventeen  unvarnished  vases  of  terra-cotta  and  seven  clay 
dishes,  and  a  large  pestle  and  mortar.  The  scales  and  steel- 
yard which  we  have  given  are  said  to  have  been  found  at  the 


same  time.  On  the  beam  of  the  steelyard  are  Eoman  nume- 
rals from  X.  to  XXXX. ;  a  V  was  placed  for  division  between 
each  X. ;  smaller  divisions  are  also  marked.  The  inscrip- 
tion is 


which  is  translated  thus  : — "  In  the  eighth  consulate  of 
Yespasian  Emperor  Augustus,  and  in  the  sixth  of  Titus, 
Emperor  and  son  of  Augustus.  Proved  in  the  Capitol."  This 
shows  the  great  care  taken  to  enforce  a  strict  uniformity  in 
the  weights  and  measures  used  throughout  the  empire ;  th^ 
date  corresponds  with  the  year  77  of  our  era,  only  two  years 
previous  to  the  great  eruption.  The  steelyard  found  was  also 
furnished  with  chains  and  hooks,  and  with  numbers  up  to 


I 


IMP.  VESP.  AYG..  IIX. 
T.  IMP.  AVG.  F.  VJ.  C, 
EXACTA.  IN.  CAPITO. 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII.  77 

XXX.  Another  pair  of  scales  (p.  78)  had  two  cups,  with  a 
weight  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  material  weighed,  to  mark 


Steelyard,  called  Trutina  Campana.  with  part  of  the  beam  and  inscription  on  a 
larger  scale. 

more  accurately  the  fractional  weight;  this  weight  was 
called  by  the  ancients  kclfwi/,  ligula,  and  examen. 


78 


POMPEII. 


Gell  tells  us  that  the  skeleton  of  a  Pompeian  was  found 
here,  who  apparently,  for  the  sake  of  sixty  coins,  a  small 
plate  and  a  saucepan  of  silver,  had  remained  in  his  house  till 
the  street  was  already  half  filled  with  volcanic  matter."  He 
was  found  as  if  in  the  act  of  escaping  from  his  window.  Two 
others  were  found  in  the  same  street. 


One  of  the  broadest  and  most  regularly  built  streets  in 
Pompeii  is  that  called  the  Street  of  Abundance  or  of  the 
Silversmiths,  from  articles  of  jewellery  having  been  found  in 
some  of  the  shops.  These  are  constructed  of  masonry,  neatly 
executed,  and  ornamented  with  elegant  pilasters.  Pilasters 
also  flank  the  doorways.  The  style  of  domestic  architecture 
observable  in  this  street  is  purely  Grecian.    The  entablature 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


79 


is  adorned  witli  dentils,  or  small  oblong  blocks,  placed  at  in- 
tervals on  a  horizontal  line  immediately  under  the  cornice : 
these  dentils  were  formed  originally  by  the  projecting  beams 
which  supported  the  roof  and  floor  of  any  building.  The 
most  singular  part  of  the  construction  of  the  houses  in  this 
street  arises  from  the  courses  of  masonry  and  the  mouldings 
being  inclined  with  the  very  gentle  slope  of  the  street.  This 
singularity  has  hitherto  escaped  the  notice  of  the  numerous 
writers  on  the  antiquities  of  Pompeii.  This  method  appears 
to  have  been  adopted  to  avoid  breaking  the  horizontal  lines 
of  the  architecture,  and  thus  ruiniDg  the  uniformity  of  the 
street.  The  inclination  of  the  ground  fortunately  is  very 
slight,  or  the  expedient,  which  is  we  believe  unique,  could 
not  have  been  adopted.  Tlie  carriage-way  up  to  the  Forum 
is  interrupted  by  the  platform  under  the  colonnade  being 
raised  one  step.  The  street  was  supplied  with  water  from 
two  fountains,  a  luxury  so  common  in  Pompeii  that  there  is 
hardly  a  street  without  one.  They  were  generally  ornamented, 
and  kept  constantly  supplied  from  a  large  reservoir  placed 
near  them.  One  of  these  fountains,  ornamented  with  the 
figure  of  Plenty,  with  the  cornucopia,  has  caused  the  street 
to  be  called  the  Street  of  Abundance.  In  the  passage  of  one 
of  the  houses  in  this  street  there  was  a  coarsely  executed 
painting  of  the  twelve  principal  gods  and  goddesses,  and 
also  a  representation  of  what  may  be  presumed  to  be  Pluto, 
drawn  with  black  colour  on  the  wall  by  some  indifferent 
artist ;  this  latter  is  not  unlike  the  modern  vulgar  notion  of 
the  devil,  a  fierce  black-looking  fellow,  with  horns  and  cloven 
feet.  The  names  of  the  owners  are  written  on  their  houses. 
One,  belonging  to  Vettius,  has  the  following  inscription, 


painted  over  another  still  older  and  illegible,  in  the  peculiar 
careless  character  then  in  use.    The  upper  line  is  part  of  the 


Fac-simile  inscription  on  the  walls. 


80 


POMPEII. 


older  inscription.  Tliey  were  usnally  done  in  blacii  or  red ; 
some  were  merely  scratched  on  the  wall.  The  album  of  the 
Latins  {kivKw^a  of  the  Greeks)  is  often  to  be  met  with  on 
the  external  walls  of  the  houses  of  Pompeii,  exactly  as  Suidas 
describes  it ;  that  is  to  say,  a  piece  of  the  wall  whitened,  in 
order  to  receive  inscriptions.  Sometimes  the  taste  of  the 
inscriber  led  him  to  enclose  this  album  or  whitened  wall 
with  a  border,  in  the  form  of  the  ancient  tabellum  or  tablet 
used  to  write  on.    One  of  these  inscriptions  runs  thus  : — 

MARCUM.  CERRINIUM.  VATIAM.  iEDILEM.  ORAT.  UT.  FAVEAT. 
SCRIBA.  ISSUS:  DIG^'US.  EbT. 


Which  may  be  translated — "  The  scribe  Issus  beseeches 
Marcus  Cerrinius  Yatia,  the  iEdile,  to  patronize  him :  he  is 
deserving.'**   Faventinus,  most  probably  another  scribe  patro- 


*  It  has  lately  been  discovered,  trom  some  specimens  written  in  full,  that 
the  lettei-s  OF,  or  OVF,  mean  orat  vos  faciatis.  The  translation  therefore  is: 
"  The  scribe  Issus  beseeches  you  to  make  M.  C.  Vatia  sedile :  he  is  deserving." 
Overbeck,  B.  ii.  S.  94  ff.  Ed. 


Fac-simile  iDScription. 


Fac-simile. 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


81 


niecd  by  the  same  ^dile,  gives  a  portrait  of  himself  with  his 
pen  behind  his  ear.  At  the  furthest  end  of  this  street  was 
discovered  a  skeleton,  supposed  to  have  been  that  of  a  priest  of 
Isis.  It  was  covered  with  pumice-stones,  and  other  volcanic 
matter.  In  the  hand  *  was  a  bag  of  coarse  linen,  not  en- 
tirely destroyed,  containing  three  hundred  and  sixty  silver 
coins,  forty-two  of  copper,  and  six  of  gold  ;  and  near  him 
several  figures  belonging  to  the  worship  of  Isis,  small  silver 
forks,  cups,  paterae  in  gold  and  silver,  a  cameo  representing 
a  satyr  striking  a  tambourine,  rings  set  with  stones,  and  vases 
of  copper  and  bronze. 

The  general  narrowness  of  the  streets,  however  repugnant 
to  our  notions  of  beauty,  comfort,  and  salubrity,  is  by  no 
means  peculiarly  the  reproach  of  Pompeii,  but  common  to  the 
Italian  cities  of  the  age  in  which  it  perished.  Nor,  indeed, 
was  that  narrowness  generally  considered  a  blemish ;  for 
when  Kome  was  burnt  during  the  reign  of  Nero,  and  the 
emperor  caused  it  to  be  rebuilt  with  more  ample  streets, 
persons  were  not  wanting  to  say  that  "  the  ancient  form  of 
the  city  was  more  healthy,  because  the  narrowness  of  the 
streets  and  height  of  the  houses  afforded  little  access  to  the 
sun's  rays ;  henceforward  the  extent  of  oj^ening,  unprotected 
by  shade,  would  burn  with  more  distressing  heat."!  Similar 
croakers  probably  were  not  wanting  to  complain  of  the 
changes  in  building  introduced  after  the  fire  of  London  ; 
though  our  northern  climate  does  not  offer  such  plausible 
objections  to  the  free  admission  of  light  and  air  as  were  to 
be  derived  from  the  torrid  sun  of  Italy.  At  Pompeii  several 
streets  were  not  broad  enough  to  allow  two  chariots  to  pass, 
small  as  they  were,  and  not  exceeding  four  feet  in  width. 
Wheel  carriages  indeed  we  conjecture  to  have  been  little 
used,  except  for  purposes  of  traffic,  from  two  circumstances  : 
first,  that  when  Mazois  published  his  work  in  1824,  only  two 
stables  had  been  found, |  and  those,  he  says,  seem  meant  for 
mules  or  asses  rather  than  horses;  and  we  know  that  the 
former  animals  were  employed  to  turn  corn-mills  :  secondly, 
that  the  whole  arrangement  of  the  pavement  seems  meant  for 
the  accommodation  of  foot-passengers.  This  inference  is 
especially  supported  by  the  nmnerous  stepping-stones  placed 

*  The  hand,  with  the  cloth,  is  now  in  the  Museum  at  Naples, 
t  Tacit.  Ann,  xv  43.  J  Mazois  part  ii.  p.  36, 

O 


82 


POMPEII. 


in  the  centre  of  streets,  to  facilitate  crossing  from  one  raised 
footpath  to  the  other  ;*  a  convenience  of  no  small  importance 
where  there  were  no  sunk  gutters,  and  where,  during  the 
heavy  winter  rains,  the  carriage-way  of  those  streets,  which, 
according  to  the  drainage  of  the  ground,  carried  off  the  waters 
of  three  or  four  others,  must  have  flowed  like  a  torrent  or  a 
Welsh  cross-road.  It  should  be  observed  that  nearly  all  the 
streets  are  straight,  and  generally  intersect  one  another  at 
right  angles.  The  principal  exception  is  the  Yico  Storto, 
leading  from  the  Street  of  Fortune  to  the  Street  of  the 
Augustals.  The  southernmost  portion  of  the  street  leading 
from  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum  is  also  somewhat  crooked. 

Of  the  method  in  which  the  town  was  drained,  and  the 
numberless  impurities  of  civilized  life  carried  off,  little  is 
known,  and  it  will  be  a  curious  subject  for  the  investigation 
of  future  inquirers.  At  Eome,  as  is  universally  known,  there 
were  enormous  sewers  under-running  the  whole  city — into 
which,  as  into  our  own  sewers,  there  were  openings  from  the 
streets — works  whose  grandeur  in  design  and  execution,  com- 
bined with  their  remote  antiquity,  has  lixed  the  admiration  of 
all  ages.  ^Nothing  of  this  description  was  to  be  expected  in 
a  provincial  town  like  Pompeii ;  but  for  a  long  time  no 
vestiges  of  any  precautions  to  prevent  the  waters  from  stag- 
nating in  all  the  lowest  parts  of  the  city,  except  where  they 
could  find  a  passage  under  the  gates,  were  discovered.  At 
last  Mazois,  having  long  directed  his  attention  to  this  point, 
thought,  that  in  the  slope  of  the  streets  and  in  the  appearance 
of  the  pavement  he  perceived  some  reason  to  suppose  that 
there  must  have  existed  sewers  to  convey  rain  water  without 
the  city ;  and,  after  much  ineffectu^al  search,  at  length  suc- 
ceeded in  discovering  one,  of  which  he  has  given  a  dramng. 
His  description  is  not  very  precise  or  sat'sfactory,  and  there- 
fore, before  attempting  to  explain  the  view,  we  will  translate 
his  words  as  literally  as  possible  :  '*  I  have  here  represented 
one  of  the  principal  sewers  (egouts)  of  the  city.  The  drain- 
age of  several  streets  converging  to  this  point,  there  were 
opened  for  it  two  passages  communicacing  with  an  aqueduct, 
which  after  travers'ng  the  thickness  of  the  city  walls  and 
agger,  discharged  the  rain  waters  from  the  top  of  the  walls 


*  See  the  wondcnts,  p.  71. 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


83 


along  the  rocks,  whence  they  ran  into  the  sea  on  the  side  of 
the  port."*  In  the  view  here  given  the  covered  sewer  seems, 
from  the  remains  of  walls,  to  lead  directly  under  a  house  ; 
but  the  locality  is  not  specified,  and  we  cannot  tell  how  far 
this  spot  is  from  the  city  walls.  The  term  aqueduct  is  im- 
properly applied,  as  it  is  never,  we  believe,  used  to  signify  a 
channel  to  carry  off  waste  water.    That  here  described  must. 


View  of  a  Sewer  in  tiie  city  of  Pompeii. 


of  course,  have  been  below  the  level  of  the  ground,  since  the 
water  from  the  street  flowed  into  it.  It  seems  natural  to 
suppose  that  it  was  a  real  sewer,  not  such  as  those  of  Tarquin, 
into  which  a  waggon  loaded  with  hay  might  drive,  but  con- 
structed rather  as  we  construct  our  own,  and  probably  com- 
municating with  the  houses  under  which  it  passed.  It  is 
inconceivable  that  there  should  not  have  been  some  such  con- 
venience to  carry  off  not  merely  the  grosser  dirt,  but  the 
fountain  waters  so  profusely  sup2)lied.  Several  similar  emis- 
sories  have  been  observed  in  different  parts  of  the  town, 
passing,  as  this  does,  beneath  the  footway,  and  probably 
*  3Iaz()is,  part  ii.  p.  99. 


84 


POMPEII. 


under  the  houses.  Mazois  mentions  having  seen,  by  the  side 
of  a  fountain  at  one  of  the  entrances  to  the  Forum,  a  drain 
leading  to  a  sewer  below,  closed  by  an  iron  grate  in  good  pre- 
servation.* The  mouth  of  a  similar  sewer  was  found  at  the 
outside  of  the  gate  leading  to  Nola.  Mazois  seems  to  ima- 
gine that  it  was  merely  a  channel  commencing  just  within  the 
gate,  and  meant  to  draw  off  the  rain  waters  which  ran  down 
the  street  before  they  reached  the  outside,  where  the  descent 
is  very  steep,  and  the  ascent  difficult,  even  when  not  impeded 
by  a  violent  rush  of  water.f 


Manner  of  carrying  the  Amphora. 


Throughout  the  streets  numerous  signs  are  to  be  seen 
upon  the  shops,  indicative  of  the  trades  which  were  pursued 
within  ;  a  trivial  circumstance,  yet  one  which,  from  its  very 
insignificance,  often  catches  the  attention,  and  seems  an 
earnest  to  the  visitor  that  he  is  here  in  truth  to  be  introduced 
to  the  usages  of  private  and  humble  life,  not  merely  led  the 
round  of  theatres,  temples,  and  all  the  costly  monuments  of 
public  magnificence.  The  annexed  cut,  from  a  terra-cotta 
bas-relief,  representing  two  men  carrying  an  amphora,  pro- 
bably served  as  the  sign  of  a  wine  shop.  Another,  found 
upon  a  shop  which  belonged  to  the  baths,  represents  a  goat, 
and  is  said,  we  know  not  with  how  much  propriety,  to  have 
denoted  that  the  owner  was  a  milkman.  Both  these  signs 
were  made  of  baked  clay,  and  coloured ;  and  they  were 
formed  in  a  mould,  which  seems  a  proof  of  their  common 


Mazois,  part  ii.  p.  36 


t  Ibid,  part  i.  p.  53, 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


g5 


recurrence,  and  therefore  furnishes  some  reason  to  suppose 
that  they  were  emblems  of  some  trade,  not  merely  ensigns 
assumed  at  the  whim  of  a  tradesman.  Near  the  Gate  of 
Herculaneum  was  a  large  statue  of  Priapus,  supposed  to  have 
indicated  the  shop  of  an  amulet  maker.  The  protecting 
care  which  that  deity  exercised,  not  only  over  gardens  but 
over  the  human  frame,  is  notorious,  and  his  image  was  con- 
stantly worn  as  a  charm  to  keep  off  the  evil  eye.  The  esta- 
blishment of  a  fencing  master,  or  keeper  of  gladiators,  is 


marked  by  a  rude  painting  of  two  persons  fighting,  while  the 
master  looks  on,  holding  a  laurel  crown ;  this  is  in  the  island 
of  the  baths,  opposite  the  west  end  of  the  Forum.  In  the 
recently  discovered  Street  of  the  Lupanar  an  inn  was  denoted 
by  the  painted  sign  of  an  elephant.  The  catalogue  may  be 
closed  with  a  painting  of  one  boy  horsed  on  another's  back, 
undergoing  a  flagellation ;  an  ominous  indication  to  truants 
and  idlers  that  the  schoolmaster  was  at  home. 

Fountains  were  numerous  both  in  the  streets  and  houses  of 
Pompeii,  but  it  is  not  known  by  what  means  the  city  was  so 
profusely  suj)plied  with  water.  Being  situated  on  a  rock  of 
lava,  no  springs  of  course  could  be  found,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants must  have  been  completely  dependent  upon  supplies 
brought  from  a  distance.*    Whence  they  came  is  unknown  : 

*  There  is  a  remaikable  exception  to  this  observation  in  a  honse  adjoining 
the  Pantheon,  behind  the  Senaculum,  where  a  well  has  been  sunk  through  the 
solid  rock  to  a  depth  of  116  feet.  Tlie  water  is  remarkably  cold  and  slightly- 
brackish. — Gell.  Another  well,  upwards  of  80  feet  deep,  and  still  furnishing  a 
supply  of  fjesh  water,  was  discovered  in  1864,  in  the  house  of  the  dealer  in 
marbles,  in  the  Vico  fctorto. 


Bas-relief  of  a  Goat  over  a  ^Milk-j>hop. 


86 


POMPEII. 


the  skirts  of  Yesiivius,  the  nearest  mountain,  were  not  likely 
to  abound  in  streams,  and  it  seems  more  likely  that  they 
were  derived  from  the  distant  Mount  Lactarius,  which  over- 
hung StabiaB. 

Traces  of  aqueducts,  however,  still  remain  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, by  which  the  city  may  have  been  supplied  from 
the  mountains  behind  Vesuvius.  Nothing  certain  is  yet 
ascertained  on  this  subject :  the  probable  means  have  been 
enumerated  by  Sir  W.  Gell.  "  The  calcareous  mountains 
behind  Sarno  and  Palma  furnish  beautiful  and  copious 
sources  throughout  their  whole  extent.  The  modern  water- 
course, which  some  say  exhibits  traces  of  the  ancient  opus 
reticulatum,  is  certainly  too  low  for  any  but  the  parts  of  the 
city  on  the  shore  (marina),  but  the  great  rapidity  of  its 
current  shows  that  a  much  higher  level  might  have  bean  pre- 
served. There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that,  setting  aside 
the  three  beautiful  springs  at  the  town  of  Sarno,  a  third  to 
the  north  of  them  exists,  and  there  was  an  aqueduct  which 
conveyed  the  water  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Palma  and 
Sarno,  over  the  plain  and  by  the  Ponte  Kossi  at  Naples,  to 
Pausilippo,  and  that  another  branch  ran  to  Cumse  and  to 
Baias,  and  all  the  volcanic  parts  of  the  country;  and  the 
Cav.  Carelli  will  probably  give  an  account  of  it.  Some  of 
the  arches  of  the  aqueduct  may  be  seen  not  far  from  Palma, 
and  the  place  is  called  Arci,  from  the  ruined  arches.  This 
is  at  a  much  higher  level  than  Sarno,  and  hence  a  branch 
ran  across  the  plain,  towards  Vesuvius  and  Pompeii,  which 
will  probably  be  discovered  at  a  future  period,  entering  the 
gate  called  that  of  Vesuvius,  at  the  highest  part  of  Pompeii. 
The  Canonico  lorio  has  preserved  a  remarkable  passage, 
T\Titten  in  the  year  1560,  by  Antonio  Lettici,  who  had  passed 
four  years  in  examining  the  subject  of  the  sources  near  Palma 
and  Sarno,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  the  modern  aqueduct. 
Speaking  of  the  aqueducts  at  Arci  and  Torricelli,  he  says  a 
branch  ran  to  the  ancient  town  of  Pompeii  on  a  height  oppo- 
site to  the  town  of  Torre  della  Nunziata,  et  in  detto  locho 
ne  appareno  multi  vestigii."  H3  even  says  that  the  ancient 
aqueducts  might  bo  repaired.*  It  is  evident,  from  its  nu- 
merous fountains,  that  Pompeii,  in  proportion  to  its  size, 
must  have  been  amply  supplied  with  water,  which  was 

*  Gell,  Appendix  to  second  series. 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


87 


distributed  to  its  different  quarters  by  conduits,  in  masonry, 
lead,  or  baked  earthen  pipes.  Leaden  pipes,  as  we  must  con- 
clude from  the  number  of  them  found,  were  almost  univer- 
sally used  to  fit  up  the  fountains,  which  have  very  little  of 
ornament  about  them,  and  consist  mostly  of  the  head  of  ii 
man  or  animal,  from  whose  mouth  a  stream  of  water  pours 
into  a  basin  below.  The  section  of  one  will  give  a  sufficient 
notion  of  the  construction  of  all.   a  a  is  the  feeding  pipe  ; 


Section  of  one  of  the  numerous  Public  Fountains  discovered  in  the  Streets  of  Pompeii. 

b,  the  basin  which  received  the  w^ater,  made  of  blocks  of  tra- 
vertine cramped  together  with  iron.  The  projections  above 
and  below  the  orifice  of  the  pipe  represent  rudely  the  profile 
of  a  faun's  head  with  long  flowing  moustaches  and  ass's  ears, 
through  whose  mouth  the  water  issues.  This  fountain  stands 
in  front  of  the  colonnade  or  proj)yl{eum  which  gives  entrance 
to  the  triangular  Forum,  and  the  Greek  temple. 

The  ancients  were  acquainted  with  that  hydrostaticai  law 
by  which  water  flowing  in  a  pipe  ascends  to  the  level  of  its 
source ;  and  it  appears  further,  that  they  were  acquainted 


88 


POMPEII. 


with  that  extension  of  the  law,  by  which  fluids  may  be  made 
to  ascend  in  a  vertical  jet  to  a  height  proportionate  to  the 
pressure  which  acts  upon  them.  Several  fountains,  which 
appear  to  have  been  fitted  up  with  jets  d'eau,  have  been 
found  in  the  houses ;  and  the  question,  if  any  doubts  were 
entertained,  appears  to  be  decided  by  a  picture  found  in 
Pompeii,  representing  a  broad  vase  with  a  jet  of  water  rising 
from  the  centre.  In  the  original  it  is  surrounded  by  a  rail- 
ing, which  is  omitted  here.  The  background  is  red,  the 
railing  and  wall  beneath  it  yellow,  and  the  vase  and  pe- 


Jet  d'eau  ;  from  the  arabesque  paintings  of  Pompeii. 

destal  rise  out  of  a  sheet  of  water.  The  picture  has  every 
appearance  of  representing  the  interior  of  an  impluvium, 
guarded  by  a  low  open  railing. 

Annexed  is  a  view  of  one  of  the  public  fountains  which 
stands  in  hiviis,  that  is,  at  the  point  of  division  between  two 
diverging  streets  not  far  from  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum. 
Behind  it  is  a  square  building,  called  by  Mazois  its  castellum, 
or  reservoir.  There  is  some  difficulty,  as  it  appears  to  us, 
in  acceding  to  this,  for  there  is  a  door  in  the  shaded  side  of 
the  building  (scarcely  visible  in  our  engraving),  the  bottom 
of  which  is  hardly  as  high  as  the  orifice  of  the  fountain  itself. 
No  head  of  water,  therefore,  could  have  been  kept  here, 
unless  we  suppose  that  there  was  an  interior  cistern,  which 
this  outer  shell  was  merely  intended  to  protect.  It  may 
have  been  meant  for  the  reception  of  the  calices  of  private 
pipes,  such  as  we  have  above  spoken  of,  which  must  of  course 
have  been  accessible  to  the  superintendent ;  or  to  protect 


POSITION  OF  POMPEII. 


89 


some  large  cock  for  opening  or  closing  the  main  water-pipes, 
like  that  contained  in  the  Museum  at  Naples,  discovered  at 
Capri  during  the  excavations  which  were  made  in  the  palace 
of  Tiberius.  Time  having  firmly  cemented  the  parts  to- 
gether, the  water  in  its  cavity  has  remained  hermetically 
sealed  during  seventeen  or  eighteen  centuries.  Travellers 


are  shown  this  curious  piece  of  antiquity,  which  being  lifted 
and  shaken  by  two  men,  the  splashing  sound  of  the  contained 
fluid  is  distinctly  heard.  There  is  nothing  at  all  remarkable 
in  the  fountain  just  described,  which  consists,  as  usual,  of  a 
pipe  spouting  into  a  square  trough :  the  mask,  if  ever  there 
were  any,  is  gone. 


90 


P03IPEII. 


The  figures  on  the  castellum  are  a  painting,  now  entirely 
effaced,  representing  a  sacrifice  to  the  Lares  Compitales,  the 
deities  of  the  highways  :  beneath  it  is  a  small  altar  dedicated 
to  them.  These  little  gods  were  the  sons  of  Lara,  who  was 
sent  down  to  the  infernal  regions  for  having  made  too  free  a 
use  of  her  tongue,  and  of  Mercury,  who  was  appointed  her 
conductor.  They  loitered  on  the  road,  and  Lara  bore  twins, 
who,  as  a  natural  consequence  of  the  circumstances  to  which 
they  owed  their  birth,  and  of  their  father's  vocation,  became 
the  guardians  of  roads.  Being  only  two  at  first,  they  multi- 
plied with  singular  rapidity.  Cross  roads,  ships,  j^ublic  build- 
ings, were  all  placed  under  the  superintendence  of  a  peculiar 
tribe;  and  they  obtained  the  names  marini,  publici,  fami- 
liares,  compitales,  &c.,  according  to  the  class  of  objects  of 
which  they  severally  took  charge.  Augustus  re-established 
their  worshijD  after  it  had  fallen  into  disuse,  and  ordered 
that  twice  a  year  their  images  should  be  crowned  with  flowers, 
and  adorned  with  garlands,  and  fruits  ofiered  on  their  altars. 
The  painting  on  the  castellum  represents  this  ceremony. 
They  were  often  represented  under  the  form  of  serpents.* 
and  the  paintings  which  so  frequently  recur  in  Pompeii 
of  large  serpents,  usually  in  the  act  of  tasting  offerings  placed 
on  a  low  altar,  and  often  with  a  projecting  brick  or  small 
shelf  before  them,  to  receive  fruit  or  a  lighted  lamp,  are  in 
honour  of  the  Lares,  and  were  supposed  to  sanctify  the  spot 
and  secure  it  from  pollution. 

*  Mercury  himself  presided  over  i-oads,  wlience  he  was  called  o^to;  ;  and  the 
remarkable  statutes  terminating  in  a  square  trunk,  erected  as  a  sort  of  tutelary 
gods  in  the  streets,  which  played  so  remarkable  a  part  m  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  were  after  him  named  Hermas. 


Bronze  cock  found  in  the  island  of  Capri. 


9] 


CHAPTEE  IV. 

ORIGIN  AND  USE  OF    FORUM.  ARCHITECTURAL  CLASSIFICATION 

OF    BUILDINGS.  DESCRIPTION    OF    FORUM    OF    POMPEII  AND 

ITS  TEMPLES. 

In  describing  a  Eoman  city,  our  attention  is  first  drawn  to 
the  Forum,  the  focus  of  business,  the  resort  of  pleasure, 
the  scene  of  all  political  and  legal  contention.  In  the  early 
ages  of  Eome  one  open  space  probably  served  for  all  the 
public  meetings  of  the  people,  whether  for  the  purposes  of 
traffic,  for  the  administration  of  justice,  or  for  meetings  to 
deliberate  upon  public  affairs.  So  in  Greek,  the  same  word, 
Agora,  derived  from  ageiro,  I  collect,  signifies  equally  a 
market,  a  place  of  assembly  for  citizens,  and  the  assembly 
itself.  As  wealth  and  splendour  increased,  and  business 
became  more  complicated,  it  was  found  inconvenient  to  have 
so  many  diflerent  occupations  carried  on  together,  and  two 
classes  of  fora  arose — Venalia,  mere  markets,  as  the  Forum 
Boarium,  or  ox-market,  Piscarium,  fish-market,  &c. — and 
Civilia,  those  devoted  to  the  other  purposes  of  a  place  of 
assembly,  of  which,  however,  until  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar, 
there  was  but  one  at  Eome.  He  built  a  second  of  extra- 
ordinary splendour,  the  area  alone  of  which  cost  the  enormous 
sum  of  800,000?.,*  from  which  we  may  imagine  Ihe  expense  and 
splendour  of  the  superstructure  ;  and  others  were  afterwards 
constructed  by  the  Emperors.  For  the  country,  however,  at 
all  events  in  small  places  like  Pompeii,  a  single  forum  con- 
tinued to  be  sufficient. 

Some  difference  existed  between  the  Greek  and  Eoman 
fora,  derived  from  the  difference  of  the  uses  to  which  they 
were  to  be  applied.  The  Greek  were  built  square,  with 
columns  near  each  other,  to  give  as  much  shelter  as  possible. 
On  these  was  placed  a  marble  architrave,  supporting  an  upper 
ambulatory,  or  gallery  for  walking.  This  gallery  the  Eomans 

*H.  S.  millies.  Suet. 


92 


POMPEII. 


retained  (there  appears  to  have  been  one  at  Pompeii),  but 
the  area,  instead  of  being  square,  was  oblong,  and  the  pillars 
set  at  considerable  intervals.  These  variations  seem  to  have 
been  made  to  give  the  greatest  possible  convenience  for  view- 
ing shows  of  gladiators,  which,  previous  to  the  building  of 
amphitheatres,  were  exhibited  in  the  Forum.  In  its  simj)le 
state  it  was  merely  an  open  area,  surrounded  by  a  colonnade, 
a  sort  of  exchange ;  but  in  the  period  of  Eoman  splendoui*  it 
was  usually  encompassed  by  a  series  of  splendid  public  build- 
ings, on  which  all  the  riches  of  architecture  were  lavished. 
Basilicae,  or  courts  of  justice — curiae,  or  places  of  assembly 
for  the  senate  or  local  magistracy— tabularia,  where  the 
public  records  were  kept — temples,  prisons,  public  granaries, 
all  things  necessary  for  the  public  pleasui-e  or  convenience, 
were  here  collected  in  immediate  neighbourhood  to  one 
another.  Various  trades  were  exercised  under  the  porticoes  ; 
the  money-changers  had  their  stalls  below  ;  the  management 
of  the  public  revenue  w^as  usually  carried  on  in  the  gallery 
above.  At  one  end,  or  in  an  adjoining  basilica,  the  praetor 
usually  administered  justice  ;  within  were  the  rostra  from 
which  orators  addressed  the  people.  The  liveliness  and 
tumult  of  the  scene,  where  all  these  employments  were 
carried  on,  may  well  be  imagined. 

It  may  be  convenient,  however,  and  may  prevent  repetition, 
if,  before  we  enter  upon  a  particular  description  of  the  build- 
ings w^hich  usually  composed  this  quarter  of  the  town,  a 
short  account  be  given  of  the  general  structure  of  temples, 
the  most  important  and  interesting,  unless  we  except  the 
baths,  of  Roman  buildings,  together  with  an  explanation  of  the 
terms  employed  by  Yitruvius  in  characterizing  them.  These 
are  universally  derived  from  the  disposition  of  the  pillars, 
the  distinguishing  feature  in  all  ancient  architecture.  Tech- 
nical terms  appear  hard  to  those  who  are  ignorant  of  their 
meaning ;  but  when  once  understood,  they  express  much  in  a 
small  compass,  and  unless  unreasonably  multiplied,  convey 
the  clearest  idea  of  the  object  to  be  described.  The  body  of 
the  temple  was  usually  quadrangular,  oblong,  and  enclosed 
by  walls  ;  this  was  called  cella,  the  cell.  It  was  adorned  on 
the  exterior  Tvith  columns,  varying  in  their  proportions  and 
design,  forming  porticoes  on  the  front  or  on  the  sides,  or 
both ;  and  from  the  number  of  columns  employed,  and  the 


ARCHITECTURAL  CJASSIFICATION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


93 


intervals  at  whlcli  they  were  placed,  the  building  took  its 
architectural  denomination.   A  temple  was  said  to  be  built  in 

Pycnostj'le  .  .  .  Q  li  0 

Svstyle    .  .  .  .9.2.9 

Eustyle.  .  .  .  ©  .  2i  .  ^ 

Dlastyle  3  ..  Q 

Araeostyle.  .  Q  .  .  4  .  . 


The  five  stylos  of  iiitercolumniation 
employed  in  Temples. 


PROSTVL  E 


MONOPTER  A  L 


Antis,  when  square  columns  (antce)  were  placed  at  the  angles 
and  along  the  sides,  with  two  round  columns  in  the  front 


94 


POMPEII. 


between  tlie  antae.*  If  built  with  a  detached  portico  in 
front,  consisting  of  any  number  of  columns,  it  was  termed 
Prostyle  ;t  if  both  ends  were  thus  ornamented,  it  was  termed 
Amphiprostyle ;  if  the  colonnade  extended  all  round,  it 
became  Peripteral  ;J  and  Dipteral,  when  built  in  the  most 
expensive  and  magnificent  shape,  w^hen  a  double  range  of 
pillars  ran  all  round.  A  variety  of  this  style  was  called 
Pseudodipteral.§  in  which  the  porticoes  projected  as  far  from 
the  cell  as  in  dipteral  temples,  but  the  interior  range  of 
columns  was  omitted.  This  was  considered  an  improvement, 
both  as  giving  more  room  under  the  portico  and  being  less 
expensive.  Another  variety  consisted  merely  of  a  circular 
colonnade,  without  a  cell,  but  only  an  altar  in  the  centre,  this 
was  called  Monopteral ;  in  another,  ||  where  the  cell  was  re- 
quired to  be  large,  the  walls  were  thrown  back,  so  as  to  fill 
up  the  intercolumniations,  whence  it  was  called  Pseudoperi- 
pteral.  The  two  latter  were  especially  devoted  to  sacrifices. 
Hypaethral  temples  were  so  named  because  the  cell  was  open 
to  the  sky.  These  were  usually  of  the  largest  and  most  mag- 
nificent descrij^tion.  The  type  of  them  given  by  Vitruvius 
consists  of  a  portico  of  ten  columns  at  either  end ;  it  is  dipte- 
ral, and  has  within  the  cell  a  double  range  of  columns,  one 
supporting  the  other,  detached  from  the  wall.  Folding  doors 
opened  into  it  at  each  end.  There  was  no  example  of  this 
style  at  Eome.lT  It  originated  probably  in  the  difficulty  of 
roofing  over  so  large  a  space,  and  of  sufficiently  lighting  the 
interior,  windows  not  being  usually  admitted  in  these  build- 
ings. The  religious  ceremonies  performed  in  these  vast 
temples  probably  did  not  require  much  shelter ;  and  a  partial 
shelter  was  given  by  the  colonnade  within  the  cell,  which 
was  ceiled  and  roofed,  and  probably  was  added  with  a  view 

*  Example,  St.  Paul's,  Covent  Oavden. 

f  Prostyle,  from  npo,  before,  and  o-rvAo?,  a  column,  with  columns  in  front. 
Amphipiostyle,  from  a/x<^i",  on  either  side,  prxx,tyle  at  each  end.  Peripteral, 
winged  all  round,  from  Trepc,  round,  and  irrepov,  a  wing.  Dipteral,  double- 
winged,  from  <Sv?,  twice.  Pseudodipteral,  false  double-winged,  from  v/zevSi??, 
false.  Monopteral,  nothing  but  wing,  from  fxovoq,  only.  Pseudopei  ipteral, 
falsely  winged.  Hypsethral,  open  to  the  sky,  from  vtto,  under,  and  at^pa,  a 
serene  sky. 

+  Examples,  the  Bourse  at  Paris,  or  the  circular  temple  of  Vesta  at  Ti\oli. 

§  Example,  St.  ]SIartin  in  the  Fields. 

II  Vitruv.  iv.  7,  H  Vitruv.  iii.  2. 


ARCHITECTURAL  CJASSIFICATION  OF  BUILDINGS.  95 


to  this  convenience.  The  building  at  Pompeii  called  the 
Temple  of  Jupiter,  may  be  conjectured,  from  its  interior 
colonnade,  to  have  been  hypaethral. 

Buildings  were  further  classified  with  regard  to  the  inter- 
columniations,  or  space  from  one  column  to  another.  They 
were  called  Pycnostyle  *  when  the  columns  were  placed  in  the 
closest  order  practised,  that  is,  when  one  and  a  half  diameters 
apart ;  Systyle,  when  two  diameters  apart ;  Eustyle,  when 
two  and  a  quarter  diameters  apart;  l)iastyle,  when  three 
diameters  apart ;  and  Araeostyle  when  the  interval  was 
greater  than  this.  Vitruvius  objects  to  the  Systyle  arrange- 
ment as  inconvenient,  "  because,  when  matrons  going  with 
their  families  to  the  temj)le  have  ascended  the  steps,  they 
cannot  pass  arm  in  arm  between  the  pillars  without  going 
sideways."  This  objection  holds  good  against  the  temples  of 
Pompeii,  which  for  the  most  part  are  on  a  small  scale.  In 
the  diastyle  he  thinks  that  the  pillars  are  too  far  apart,  and 
that  in  consequence  the  stability  of  the  entablature  is  en- 
dangered. The  reader  is  aware  that  in  Grecian  architecture 
the  arch  was  not  used,  neither  were  the  ancients  acquainted 
with  the  means  employed  by  our  own  architects  to  cramp 
together  separate  stones  into  one  solid  body.  Blocks  there^ 
fore  were  required  of  sufficient  size  to  stretch  from  the  centre 
of  one  column  to  that  of  the  next ;  and  these,  where  the  inter- 
val was  large  and  the  material  tender,  were  subject  to  break 
even  under  their  own  weight,  much  more  with  that  of  the 
entablature  added.  In  the  Araeostyle  neither  stone  nor 
marble  architraves  could  be  used,  but  beams  of  timber  rested 
on  the  columns.  Buildings  of  this  description,  he  says,  are 
low  and  heavy,  and  the  architraves  ornamented  with  pottery 
or  brazen  mouldings.  The  portico  surrounding  the  Forum  at 
Pompeii  was  of  this  description.  The  Eustyle  was,  as  its 
name  imports,  the  most  perfect,  uniting  convenience,  beauty, 
and  strength.  In  this  the  central  intercolumniation  in  front 
of  the  temple  was  of  three  diameters,  displaying  to  more 
advantage  the  door  of  the  cella,  with  its  ornaments,  and 
affording  a  more  ample  space  for  ingress  and  egress. 

*  Pycnostyle,  close-columned,  from  nvKvoq,  close,  and  o-n^Ao?,  a  column. 
Systyle,  near-columned,  from  <ruv,  together.  Eustyle,  well-columned,  from 
e5,  well.  Diastyle,  open-columned,  from  SCa,  apart.  Araeostyle,  thinly- 
ooliimned,  from  apaco?,  scatteied. 


96 


POMPEII. 


"  An  essential  feature  in  the  temples  of  Pompeii,  as  dis- 
tino^nished  from  those  of  Greece,  is  to  be  observed  in  the 
podium,^  or  basement,  on  which  they  were  elevated.  In  the 
religious  edifices  of  an  early  age  no  such  character  appears. 
They  were  placed  upon  two  or  three  steps  only,  if  steps  they 
should  be  termed,  when  evidently  not  proportioned  for  con- 
venience of  access  to  the  interior,  but  calculated  rather  with 
a  view  to  the  general  effect  of  the  whole  structure."!  By 
thus  raising  the  floor  to  a  level  with  or  above  the  eye,  the 
whole  order,  from  the  stylobate,  or  continuous  platform  on 
which  the  columns  rest,  to  the  roof,  was  brought  at  once 
into  view.  The  steps,  Vitruvius  says,  should  be  of  an  odd 
number,  that  the  right  foot,  being  planted  on  the  first  step, 
may  also  first  be  placed  on  the  pavement  of  the  temple.  To 
enter  with  the  left  foot  foremost  was  considered  unlucky. 
With  regard  to  the  proportions  of  the  interior  within  the 
porticoes,  the  breadth  is  directed  to  be  half  the  length,  and 
the  cell  to  be  a  fourth  part  more  in  length  than  in  breadth. 
The  building  is  directed  to  stand  east  and  west,  like  our 
churches,  and  the  statue  of  the  presiding  deity  to  be  elevated 
above  the  altar,  that  the  suppliants  and  priests  might  decently 
look  up  to  the  object  of  their  worship.  Thus  an  hypaethral 
temple  would  present  a  most  splendid  scene  ;  the  worshippers 
addressing  their  vows,  the  image  apparently  rising  to  behold 
them,  and  the  building  itself  boldly  projected  on  the  eastern 
sky.  It  will  be  recollected  that  these  are  merely  the  rules 
laid  down  by  Vitruvius  ;  it  does  not  follow  that  they  were 
always  observed. 

We  now  proceed  to  describe  the  Forum  Civile  of  Pompeii, 
of  which  the  annexed  plate  contains  a  ground-plan,  restored 
from  the  remains  now  existing.  An  examination  of  this  will 
afford  a  correct  idea  of  the  arrangement  of  the  several  edifices. 

Upon  entering,  the  spectator  finds  himself  in  a  large  area, 
about  524  feet  long  and  140  broad,  including  the  porticoes, 
surrounded  by  columns  and  the  ruins  of  temples,  triumphal 
arches,  and  other  public  buildings,  the  particular  uses  of 
which  can  in  general  only  be  conjectured.  The  red  masses 
of  brick  divested  of  their  marble  casings,  the  brown  and 
yellow  tints  of  the  tufa,  the  fragments  of  white  stucco 


*  Diminutive  of  7rou9,  the  foot. 


t  Gel],  p.  227. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FORUM. 


97 


attacliecl  to  the  shattered  walls  of  the  different  edifices,  and 
the  pedestals,  v/hich  once  supported  statues  commemorating 
those  who  had  deserved  well  of  their  country,  are  all  that 
now  remain  to  attest  its  former  beauty  and  magnificence. 

Around  the  west,  south,  and  east  sides  there  runs  a  Grecian 
Doric  colonnade,  uninterrupted,  except  on  the  east,  where  the 
porticoes  of  the  surrounding  buildings  in  some  instances  come 
flush  up  to  the  colonnade,  and  in  some  places  break  the  line 
of  the  upper  gallery,  preserving  an  uninterrupted  communi- 
cation below.  Where  this  was  the  case  stairs  ran  up  to  the 
gallery  ;  but  probably  there  was  also  some  communication 
between  these  several  divisions  of  it  without  descending  to 
the  ground.  True  it  is,  that  as  no  vestige  of  this  upper  story 
remains,  it  may  seem  rash  to  assert  its  existence  so  boldly ; 
but  the  traces  of  staircases,  combined  with  the  authority  of 
Vitruvius,  are  sufiicient  to  warrant  us  in  doing  so.  Probably 
it  was  built  of  wood ;  this  would  account  for  its  total  dis- 
appearance. The  diameter  of  the  columns  was  two  feet  three 
and  a  half  inches,  their  height  twelve  feet,  the  interval  be- 
tween them  six  feet  ten  inches.  On  the  eastern  side  there 
still  remains  a  portion  of  an  older  arcade,  which  the  inhabit- 
ants, at  the  time  of  the  eruption,  were  in  the  course  of  replac- 
ing by  the  Doric  portico.  The  pillars  are  of  three  materials ; 
of  fine  white  caserta  stone,  resembling  marble ;  of  ancient 
yellowish  tufa ;  and  of  brick  plastered. 

An  opinion,  which  seems  very  probable,  is  advanced  by 
Overbeck,*  that  the  Forum  is  of  a  later  date  than  the  rest  of 
the  city,  and  posterior,  at  all  events,  to  the  Eoman  colonisa- 
tion, if  not  to  the  earthquake  in  a.d.  63.  The  grounds  for 
this  opinion  are,  that  two  small  streets  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Forum,  namely,  that  between  the  Temple  of  Augustus 
and  the  Senaculum,  and  that  between  the  Temple  of  Mercury 
and  the  Chalcidicum,  have  been  blocked  up  and  converted 
into  culs  de  sac  by  the  encroachment  of  these  buildings ; 
which  shows  the  last  to  have  been  of  more  recent  date  than 
the  streets.  Another  reason  is,  that  the  whole  plan  and  dispo- 
sition of  the  Forum  is  in  conformity  with  the  Eoman  practice 
as  laid  down  in  the  rules  of  Vitruvius.  We  may  perhaps  add 
that  the  materials  of  which  the  Forum  is  constructed,  such  as 

*  Pojnp.  B.  i.  S.  68, 

H 


98 


POMPEII. 


the  brick  pillars  and  walls  covered  with  coats  of  stucco  or 
marble,  bespeak  a  mucli  more  recent  date,  than,  for  instance, 
the  Greek  temple  in  the  triangular  Forum,  with  its  massive 
columns  of  solid  stone,  of  a  much  earlier  and  purer  style. 

Projecting  itself  on  the  area  of  the  Forum  on  the  north, 
stands  a  building  generally  called  the  Temple  of  Jupiter.  It 
is  prostyle,  and  of  the  Corinthian  order :  the  columns  are 
pycnostyle,  and  the  portico  is  pseudo-dipteral  and  hexastyle, 
or  having  six  columns  in  the  front.  A  row  of  columns  runs 
on  each  side  along  the  interior  of  the  cella,  which,  as  has 
been  observed,  leads  us  to  suppose  that  it  was  hypsethral.  It 
is  probable  that  there  were  two  ranges  of  columns  within  the 
cella,  one  above  another,  as  at  Paestum,  the  floor  of  a  gallery 
resting  on  the  lower  tier,  since  the  height  of  the  exterior  was 
such  as  to  require  two  orders  in  the  interior  (where  the 
columns  were  smaller)  to  reach  the  roof,  the  object  of  the 
columns  being  support,  and  not  mere  decoration.  A  narrow 
staircase  at  the  back  of  the  temple,  concealed  behind  three 
small  chambers  at  the  end  of  the  cella,  the  walls  of  which 
rise  to  the  height  of  the  first  order  of  columns,  confirms  the 
belief  that  there  was  formerly  a  gallery.  The  clear  space  of 
the  cell,  within  these  chambers  and  the  colonnade,  was  about 
forty-two  feet  by  twenty-eight  feet  six  inches.  The  interior 
has  been  painted ;  red  and  black  are  the  predominant  colours. 
Diamond-shaped  pieces  of  marble  form  the  centre  division  of 
the  pavement,  which  is  enclosed  within  a  broad  border  of 
black  and  white  mosaic.  In  the  centre  of  the  door-sill  there 
are  traces  of  holes  for  the  bolts  of  folding  doors.  Upon  the 
pavement  fragments  of  a  colossal  statue  were  discovered. 
This  temple  is  placed  on  an  elevated  basement  or  podium, 
which  was  ascended  by  many  steps.  Those  nearest  the 
columns  are  carried  along  the  whole  front  of  the  portico, 
while  the  steps  near  the  gTound  are  narrow,  and  sunk  in  a 
low  parapet  forming  a  basement  to  the  upper  flight.  Greater 
breadth  of  effect  and  grandeur  is  communicated  to  the  whole 
edifice  by  this  mass  of  solid  wall  beneath  the  large  columns 
which  it  seems  to  support.  A  magnificent  example  of  this 
method  of  construction  is  to  be  seen  in  the  portico  of  the 
London  University.     The  dye*  of  the  basement  inclines 

*  The  dye  is  that  part  of  the  basement  which  is  placed  between  the  under 
ai.d  upper  moulding  of  the  whole ;  it  is  generally  a  plain  surface. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FORUM. 


99 


inwards ;  it  is  moulded  above  and  below,  and  in  front  formed 
into  pedestals,  which  are  oblong,  and  adapted  to  receive 
equestrian  statues.  Near  one  of  them  a  sun-dial  was  found. 
Pedestals  were  also  added  in  front  at  the  angles  of  the  base- 
ment of  the  portico.  On  the  south-east  a  side  door  in  the 
basement  leads  to  vaults  beneath  the  temple.  The  whole  of 
the  building,  constructed  as  it  is  of  stone  and  lava,  has  been 
covered  with  a  fine  white  cement  made  of  marble,  still  retain- 
ing great  hardness.  The  workmanship  does  not  appear  to  be 
very  good  or  exact.  The  columns  and  the  spaces  between 
them  vary,  none  of  them  being  equidistant.  The  diameters 
of  the  columns  are  three  feet  seven  inches  and  three  feet 
eight  inches,  making  their  height,  according  to  the  propor- 
tions observed,  approach  to  thirty-six  feet,  about  the  size  of 
the  lower  order  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  so  that  the  whole 
height  of  the  building  was,  including  the  basement,  about 
sixty  feet.  Without  the  walls  its  breadth  w^as  forty-three 
feet,  and  its  length  a  hundred  to  the  end  of  the  portico.  Add 
twenty  feet  for  the  flights  of  steps,  and  the  total  length  is  one 
hundred  and  twenty  feet.* 

Adjoining  the  south-western  end  of  the  basement  stand  the 
ruins  of  an  arch,  built  of  brick,  and  cased  with  slabs  of  white 
marble,  fastened  on  the  brickwork  by  iron  cramps.  This 
arch,  which  is  seen  on  the  left  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 
given  in  the  view  of  the  Forum,  is  by  some  conjectured 
to  have  been  triumphal;  but  from  its  being  connected  with 
the  temple  by  a  low  wall  reaching  to  the  height  of  the  ad- 
joining basement,  it  is  more  probable  that  it  was  only  the 
entrance  to  a  court  in  front  of  what  may  have  been  the 
public  granaries.  This  wall  evidently  proves  that  the  whole 
was  constructed,  not  for  show,  but  use.    Had  the  arch  been 

*  It  is  the  opinion  of  Overbeck  {Pomp.  B.  i.  S.  90,  92)  that  the  temple  was 
dedicated  to  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva,  as  a  trinity  presiding,  like  the  Capi- 
toline  deities  at  Rome,  over  the  safety  of  the  city.  But  though,  from  its  situ- 
ation, the  temple  was  no  doubt  dedicated  to  a  principal  deity,  yet  its  nai'row 
oblong  form  forbids  the  idea  that  there  would  have  been  room  for  the  statues 
of  three  gods.  The  same  author  rejects  the  opinion  that  the  temple  was  liypae- 
thral.  He  also  questions  the  discovery  of  a  colossal  head  of  Jupiter:  which, 
however,  is  recorded  in  the  Journal  of  the  Excavations,  January  21st,  1817 
{Pomp.  Ant,  Hist,  t.  i.  fasc.  iii.,  p.  190).  It  should  have  been  stated  that  the 
extensive  favissos,  or  cellars,  under  the  temple  are  lighted  by  several  openings 
ui  the  floor. 


100 


POMPEII. 


triumphal,  it  would  have  been  more  solidly  built,  isolated,  and 
not  disfigured  by  a  small  piece  of  wall  attached  to  one  side 
only,  disfiguring  also  the  basement  of  the  most  commanding 
building  in  the  city.  It  may  be  presumed,  therefore,  to 
have  formed  the  entrance  to  a  court-yard  before  the  granary 
and  prisons,  which  are  here  situated  at  the  north-west  corner 
of  the  Forum;  such  a  convenience  being  almost  necessary 
to  the  former,  for  the  unloading  the  grain  apart  from  the 
crowd  in  the  Forum  ;  and  to  the  latter,  as  an  outlet  where 
prisoners,  it  may  be  supposed,  were  allowed  to  take  exercise 
under  the  eyes  of  their  guards.  That  the  prison  stood  here 
there  can  be  no  doubt  ;*  indeed  its  exact  spot  is  determined 
by  the  skeletons  of  two  men,  left  to  perish  in  the  general  con- 
fusion. Their  leg-bones  were  found  still  within  the  shackles. 
With  regard  to  the  other  apartment,  there  certainly  is  not  such 
convincing  evidence  to  prove  that  it  was  the  public  granary. 
It  is  well  suited  to  such  a  purpose,  but  the  strongest  evidence 
of  its  destination  is  to  be  found  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  the  public  measures.  We  may  further  observe,  with  regard 
to  the  arch,  that  it  is  not  sufficiently  substantial  for  the  pur- 
pose which  is  assigned  to  it,  nor  would  the  plane  sm^face  on 
the  top  be  broad  enough  either  for  an  equestrian  statue  or  a 
triumphal  car.  But  attached  to  the  north-east  angle  of  the 
Temple  of  Jupiter  there  is  a  gateway,  having  the  character  of 
a  triumphal  arch.  The  massive  piers  and  part  of  the  columns 
that  adorned  them  still  remain.  In  each  pier  were  two  attached 
fluted  Corinthian  white  marble  columns,  of  good  workman- 
ship. In  the  centre  of  each  pier,  between  the  columns,  are 
square-headed  niches,  in  one  of  which  there  was  a  fountain, 
as  is  evident  from  the  lead  pipes  which  were  here  discovered. 
Statues  most  probably  were  placed  in  the  foui'  niches,  and 
the  fountain  formed  in  one  of  them  may  have  flowed  through 
a  cornucopia,  or  some  other  appropriate  vessel  held  in  the 
hands  of  the  figure.!  Statues  applied  to  these  purposes 
were  commonly  placed  at  the  fountains  in  Pompeii.  Among 
others  have  been  found  two  boys  of  beautiful  workmanship, 

*  Vide  Donaldson's  Pompeii. 

f  The  nichps  are  deeper  on  the  outer  side  of  the  arch,  or  that  racing  the 
Street  of  Mercury,  than  on  the  side  facing  the  Forum,  and  it  is  the  former 
that  must  have  contained  the  fountains.  The  others  could  only  have  held 
statues 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FORUM. 


101 


carrying  vases  on  tlieir  shoulders,  and  two  others  with  masks 
in  their  hands,  the  masks  and  vases  resting  on  pedestals. 
Water  was  conveyed  up  through  the  figures,  and  issued  from 


Bronze  figures  to  ornament  fountains. 


102 


POMPEII. 


the  masks  and  vases.  Conduits  of  lead  were  frequently  used 
in  Pompeii  to  conduct  the  water  to  the  public  fountains  and 
i:)rivate  baths.  These,  however,  the  late  Neapolitan  govern- 
ment caused  to  be  torn  up,  and  sold  for  their  value  as  old 
metal. 

The  arch  from  which  this  digression  has  led  us,  had  with- 
out doubt  an  attic  or  low  wall  above  the  cornice,  on  which 
was  placed  either  an  equestrian  statue  or  a  car,  the  appro- 
priate finish  to  such  a  structure.  That  either  one  or  the  other 
did  surmount  the  attic,  may  be  inferred  from  the  fragments 
of  a  bronze  statue  of  a  man,  and  part  of  the  legs  of  a  horse 
of  the  same  metal,  having  been  found  in  the  immediate 
vicinity.  The  arch  is  built  of  bricks  and  lava,  and  has  been 
covered  with  thin  slabs  of  marble,  a  method  of  construction 
in  use  among  the  ancients  ;  and,  from  a  principle  of  economy, 
much  practised,  not  only  in  Pompeii,  but  even  in  Rome, 
where  the  brick  walls,  despoiled  of  their  costly  coatings, 
alone  remain.  Presuming  that  the  Forum  was  closed  for 
security,  the  opening  of  this  arch  must  have  had  gates ; 
these,  however,  no  longer  exist.  Possibly  they  were  of  wood, 
or  if  of  bronze,  they  may  have  been  carried  away  by  the 
Pompeians.  An  additional  proof  that  the  Forum  was  shut 
up  at  night  is  to  be  found  in  the  small  pier  attached  to  the 
north-w^est  angle  of  the  arch,  evidently  built  to  receive  the 
iron  or  wood-work  of  a  gate  closing  the  foot-entrance  by  its 
side.  Had  it  not  been  necessary  to  close  the  Forum,  this 
small  pier  would  have  been  useless,  and  the  deformity  of  it 
would  have  been  avoided.  This  arch  may  be  considered  the 
principal  entrance  to  the  Fo^um,  and,  as  such,  was  doubtless 
chosen  for  the  site  of  a  pul^l'c  monument.  It  was  the  only 
entrance  for  carriages ;  the  foot  entrance  is  formed  by  another 
arch  to  the  right,  or  east  of  that  already  described.  This 
arch  is  of  the  same  height  as  the  other,  but  stands  on  a  some- 
what higher  level.  It  formed  the  entrance  just  mentioned,  for 
foot-passengers  only,  into  the  east  side  of  the  portico  which 
surrounds  the  Forima.  The  top  of  the  arch  has  fallen  in.  On 
the  triumphal  arch  near  the  baths  was  placed  an  equestrian 
figure  of  the  size  of  life,  the  fragments  of  which  were  found 
during  the  excavations  in  1823.  The  figm^e  of  the  man  is 
perfect,  T\dth  the  exception  of  the  left  leg  and  foot,  but  of  the 
horse,  only  the  tail  and  one  of  the  forelegs  without  the  foot 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FORUM. 


103 


were  found.  The  action  of  tlie  statue,  which  is  supposed 
to  represent  Nero,  resembles  that  of  M.  Aurelius  in  the 
Campidoglio  at  Eome,  but  it  is  of  very  inferior  workmanship. 
Here  was  also  found  a  skeleton,  with  seventy-four  small 
silver  coins.* 

The  buildings  hitherto  described,  with  the  exception  of  the 
granary  and  prisons,  form  the  north  side  of  the  Forum.  We 
will  now  take  those  on  the  east  side,  and,  describing  them 
and  their  probable  uses  in  the  order  of  their  succession,  pro- 
ceed along  the  south  and  west  sides  back  to  the  granary. 
Adjoining  the  pedestrian  entrance,  already  mentioned,  at  the 
north-eastern  angle  of  the  Forum,  stands  an  edifice  called  th  j 
Pantheon,!  from  twelve  pedestals  placed  in  a  circle  round  an 
altar  in  the  centre  of  its  area,  which  are  supposed  to  have 
supported  the  statues  of  the  Dii  Consentes,  or  Magni,  the 
aristocracy  of  Italian  mythology.  The  area,  one  hundred  and 
twenty  by  ninety  feet,  is  bounded  by  the  back  walls  of  sh;)])s 
on  the  north  and  west  sides  ;  by  the  ^dicula  (a  small  temple 
or  shrine),  raised  to  the  founder  or  patron,  and  two  inclosiu'es 
on  the  east ;  and  by  the  eleven  cells  supposed  to  belcng  to 
the  fraternity  of  priests  on  the  south.  Within,  perhaps,  a 
rectangular  portico  or  gallery  inclosed  the  twelve  pedestals, 
or  they  may  have  been  covered  with  a  wooden  temple,  in  the 
light  style  of  architecture  depicted  on  the  walls  of  Pompeii. 
No  traces  however  remain  of  such  constructions.  In  front  of 
this  building,  under  the  portico  of  the  Forum,  are  seven  shops, 
possibly  the  Tabernae  Argentariro,  or  shops  of  money-changers ; 
the  pedestals  of  some  of  the  tables  still  remain.  In  one  of 
these  shops  1128  silver  and  copper  coins  were  found  in  the 
remains  of  a  chest.  The  entrance  to  the  Pantheon  is  by  a 
small  vestibule  in  the  centre  of  the  area.  There  are  four 
pedestals  in  front  of  it,  and  one  at  the  end  of  each  party  wall 
between  the  shops.  They  probably  were  meant  to  receive 
columns.  At  the  end  of  the  shops  was  a  staircase,  which  may 
have  led  to  the  upper  ambulatories. 

In  the  centre  of  the  vestibule  stood  a  small  altar,  which 
still  remains,  with  doors  opening  on  each  side  into  the  area 
beyond.  Behind  the  altar  was  a  niche,  on  which  the  statue 
of  some  one  of  the  gods  was  placed,  so  that  the  devout  Koman 

*  Fioielli,  Pomp.  Antiq.  Hist.,  t.  ii.  p.  8'^,  ct  scq. 

t  Or,  with  more  probability,  the  Temple  of  Augustus. 


104 


POMPEn. 


had  an  oi^portunity  of  leaving  his  offering  as  he  entered,  and 
propitiating  the  presiding  deity.  On  the  right  side,  as  you 
enter,  are  arranged  the  cells  already  mentioned ;  over  these 
were  other  apartments,  as  the  holes  in  the  side  walls  for  the 
reception  of  joists  indicate.  There  are  also  holes  in  the 
piers  in  front  of  these  cells  for  the  joists  and  floor  of  a  gal- 
lery which  gave  access  to  the  upper  apartments,  as  in  the  old 
inns  still  existing  in  London  and  elsewhere.  The  staircase 
has  been  entirely  destroyed,  so  that  its  site  cannot  be  ascer- 
tained ;  it  is,  however,  most  natural  to  suppose  it  near  the 
vestibule.  There  were  other  entrances  ;  one  in  the  centre  of 
the  north  side,  and  another  at  the  end  of  the  cells,  both  lead- 
ing into  streets  without  the  Forum.  The  further  end  of  this 
building  was  divided  into  three  compartments.  That  in  the 
centre  was  an  sedicula,  containing  niches,  in  which  were 
statues  of  Livia,  the  wife  of  Augustus,  and  Drusus.  In  the 
side  wall  opposite  to  these  must  have  stood  the  statues  of  two 
other  members  of  the  imperial  family  in  corresponding 
niches.  The  principal  statue  stood  on  a  large  marble  base, 
or  pedestal,  facing  the  entrance.  The  only  remains  of  it 
found  was  an  arm  holding  a  globe  ;  whence  it  seems  reason- 
able to  conclude  that  it  belonged  to  a  statue  of  Augustus. 
The  conjecture  of  Overbeck,*  that  it  might  have  been  part  of 
a  statue  of  Jupiter,  is  improbable.  There  would  hardly  have 
been  two  large  temples  to  that  deity  close  together,  nor  is  it 
likely  that  he  would  have  been  placed  in  such  company. 
The  statues  extant  were  carried  to  the  Neapolitan  Museum 
and  replaced  by  casts.  That  of  Livia  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  found  at  Pompeii,  especially  for  the  execution  of 
the  drapery,  but  unfortunately  it  wants  the  right  forearm. 
On  the  right  of  the  sedicula,  a  door-way  between  two  columns 
gave  admission,  as  some  have  supposed,  to  a  refectory  for  the 
use  of  the  priests,  or  a  place  for  the  sale  of  such  provisions 
as  they  had  reserved  from  the  sacrifice.  A  low  platform  or 
bench  surrounds  three  sides  of  the  room,  which  may  have 
been  meant  either  for  tricliniary  couches,  or  have  served  as 
a  place  on  which  the  provisions  for  sale  were  exposed. f 

*  B.  i.  S.  116. 

•j-  The  Romans,  it  is  well  known,  reclined  at  their  meals,  apparently  an  in- 
convenient fashion,  bat  not  so  inconvenient  to  persons  who  used  no  knives  and 
forks  as  to  us,  who  require  two  hands  to  get  our  food  comfortably  to  our 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


105 


Eound  the  inside  runs  a  marble  gutter,  to  carry  off  the  water 
and  refuse  when  the  place  was  cleansed.*  On  the  other  side 
of  the  sedicula  an  enclosure  has  been  formed  with  columns  on 
the  exterior,  similar  to  the  entrance  of  the  refectory.  Within 
it  is  a  small  vaulted  gedicula,  on  a  podium  ascended  by  five 
steps,  before  which  stands  an  altar.  This  apartment  has  been 
twice  stuccoed  and  painted,  the  first  design  having  been  re- 
placed by  a  series  of  arabesques.  This  style  of  decoration, 
common  to  all  the  public  and  private  buildings  of  Pompeii, 
has  been  condemned  by  Vitruvius ;  yet,  even  in  defiance  of 
his  authority,  we  feel  disposed  to  admire  their  bold  and  har- 
monious colouring,  and  the  lightness,  elegance,  and  variety 
of  their  designs.  The  paintings  in  this  edifice  are  worthy, 
for  their  beauty,  of  especial  notice ;  the  various  designs  are 
well  composed,  and  the  colours  are  as  brilliant  as  when  first 
laid  on.  Among  the  figures,  not  the  least  interesting  is  one  of 
the  paintress  herself,  holding  in  one  hand  an  oval  white 
palette,  apparently  of  silver,  in  the  other,  brushes  tinged  with 
several  colours.  Her  fingers  appear  to  grasp  the  palette, 
through  as  many  holes  perforated  in  the  metal. 

The  art  of  fresco  painting  is  still  practised ;  but  the  secret 
of  employing  a  medium  so  durable  as  to  withstand,  first  fire, 
and  afterwards  the  damp  of  so  many  ages,  is  unknown  to  the 
moderns.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  medium  employed 
to  liquify  the  pigments  used  in  these  paintings  was  wax 
mixed  with  oil.  Supposing  that  wax,  than  which  nothing  is 
more  lasting,  were  used,  it  may  be  imagined  that  the  object 
of  a  silver  or  metal  palette  was  to  retain  so  much  heat  as 
would  liquify  the  menstruum,  witliout  being  inconvenient  to 
the  artist.  The  paintings  consist  of  architectural  composi- 
tions of  long  aerial  columns,  vistas  through  doorways,  show- 
ing the  ornamented  ceilings,  an  abundant  variety  of  figures 
and  borders  of  flowers,  with  an  almost  endless  detail  of  en- 


mouths.  Three  couches  were  usually  placed  in  a  dining-room,  one  at  each  side 
of  the  tab.e,  leaving  the  fourth  open  to  the  servants.  Hence  the  word  tiicli- 
nium,  rpets  KkLvai^  three  beds,  which  name  is  given  both  to  the  couches  and  to  the 
room.  The  distance  between  the  sides  of  this  podium,  and  the  opening  in  the 
east  side  of  it,  as  represented  in  the  plan,  together  with  the  gutter  surrounding 
it,  make  the  second  account  of  it  more  probable.  [The  construction  of  the 
Dlatform  is  not  adapted  to  a  triclinium.] 

*  Hence  some  have  conjectured  that  it  was  a  slaughter-house 


106 


POMPEII, 


richment,  painted  for  the  most  part  ^dth  dazzling  colours, 
among  whicli,  bright  vermilion,  jet  black,  deep  crimson, 
azure  blue,  and  golden  yellow,  usually  form  the  ground.  To 
these  are  added  a  variety  of  mixed  tints,  more  delicate  as  the 
objects  are  supposed  to  recede  from  the  eye.  The  latter  con- 
sist principally  of  light  greys,  pink,  purple,  and  green.  It 
must  however  be  confessed  that  good  taste  did  not  hold  ex- 
clusive sway  in  Pompeii ;  for  in  that  case  a  proprietor  would 
hardly  have  painted  the  exterior  of  his  house  with  chequers 


Painting  of  a  Galley  on  the  walls  of  the  Pantheon. 

resembling  the  sign  of  a  modern  alehouse ;  or  have  covered 
the  external  walls  with  a  decoration  similar  to  the  infantine 
amusement  of  a  child,  who,  for  the  first  time  in  possession  of 
a  pair  of  compasses  and  a  colour-box,  proceeds  to  describe 
circles  intersecting  each  other,  and  then  fills  them  with  a 
coloured  patchwork.*  Historical  subjects  are  painted  in  the 
centres  of  the  compartments  formed  by  the  arabesques  ;  one 
of  these  represents  Ulysses  in  disguise  meeting  Penelope  on 
his  return  to  Ithaca. 

Another  theory  has  been  adopted  by  an  ingenious  Neapoli- 
tan architect.  Carlo  Bonnucci,  with  regard  to  this  building. 
The  temple  at  one  end  he  calls  the  Temple  of  Augustus,  and 
the  remainder  he  sets  apart  for  the  banquets  of  his  priests, 
the  Augustals  ;  and  he  cites  Yitruvius  as  authority  for  such  a 
situation  as  that  chosen.f    The  numerous  inscriptions  rela- 

*  It  has  been  imagined  that  the  occupier  was  a  worker  in  mosaic,  and  that 
this  patchw^ork  was  a  sort  of  s"gn. 

t  The  Augustals  in  tlie  provincial  towns  were  of  an  inferior  order  to  the 
same  priests  at  Rome,  and  were  commonly  libertini,  or  freedmen.  They  were 
appointed  by  the  Decurions  of  the  Municipium. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


107 


tive  to  these  personages  discovered  at  Pompeii  would  lead  us 
to  infer  tliat  they  were  of  some  importance,  and  from  one  of 
these  they  appear  to  have  been  six  in  number.  Sir  William 
Gell,  following  the  opinion  of  Bonnucci,  says,  "  that  the 
Augustals  were  possessed  of  funds  which  supplied  them  with 
the  means  of  feasting,  and  inviting  their  fellow-citizens  to 
partake  in  their  banquet,  for  which  purpose  the  building  now 
called  Pantheon  was  so  well  calculated  ;  that,  whether  belong- 
ing to  a  particular  order,  or  the  common  property  of  all  the 
inhabitants  of  Pompeii,  it  may  be  safely  considered  as  a 
place  of  feasting  or  carousal  under  the  protection  of  some 
deity,  who,  from  his  more  elevated  sacellum,  was  supposed 
to  overlook  and  patronise  the  banquet.  That  such  was  the 
destination  of  this  edifice,  and  that  it  differed  but  little  in  its 
uses  from  that  which  the  Greeks  called  Lesche,  and  the 
modern  Italians  a  trattoria  and  coffee-house,  seems  to  be  ren- 
dered more  probable  by  many  of  its  internal  decorations  ; 
while  its  proximity  to  the  Forimi,  the  chief  resort  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  city,  would  point  out  this  situation  as  the 
most  eligible  for  a  place  of  conversation  and  refreshment." 

The  destination  of  the  building  just  described  has  occa- 
sioned more  perplexity  to  antiquarians  than  that  of  almost 
any  other  in  Pompeii.  The  idea  that  it  was  a  Pantheon  is 
now  pretty  universally  rejected.  The  twelve  stone  posts  in 
the  centre  are  said  to  be  not  pedestals  for  statues,  but  bases, 
on  which  rested  pillars  which  supported  a  circular  building ; 
while  the  apartments  on  the  right,  or  southern  side,  are  not 
twelve  in  number  but  only  eleven.  Some  have  considered  it 
to  be  a  market,  some  an  hospitium  destined  for  the  reception 
of  ambassadors  or  other  distinguished  foreigners — of  which, 
however,  there  could  have  been  no  great  quantity  in  a  third 
rate  town  like  Pompeii — while  others  have  called  it  a  Sera- 
peum.  The  theory  that  it  was  an  hospitium  is  rejected  by 
Overbeck,*  who,  however,  considered  it  plausible ;  and  he 
himself  adopts,  after  Pyl,  a  very  similar  one,  namely,  that  it 
was  a  Temple  of  Vesta  and  Prytaneum,  after  the  Greek 
fashion.  A  Greek  Prytaneum  was  to  the  city  what  the  house 
was  to  a  private  family ;  a  place  of  public  entertainment, 
where  distinguished  and  deserving  citizens,  as  well  as  ambas- 


*  Book  i.  S.  118. 


108 


P03IPEII. 


sadors  and  other  foreigners  of  distinction,  were  entertained 
at  tlie  public  expense.  For  this  purpose  an  ever-burning 
fire  was  maintained  in  it,  as  in  tbe  Temple  of  Yesta ;  and 
Overbeck  thinks  that  the  twelve  stone  bases,  placed  in  a 
circle  in  the  middle  of  the  area,  supported  a  round  building 
in  which  was  an  altar  dedicated  to  that  goddess.  But  of  all 
the  conjectui'es  hazarded  concerning  the  building,  we  consider 
this  to  be  about  one  of  the  most  improbable.  For,  first, 
Frjtaneia  were  only  foimd  in  the  independent  and  capital 
towns  of  Greece,  and  would  have  been  misplaced  in  a  third- 
rate  town  in  Itoly  like  Pompeii,  where,  as  we  have  already 
observed,  there  could  have  been  no  great  influx  of  distinguished 
foreigners.  Again,  such  an  establishment  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  a  Eoman  custom ;  and  Overbeck  himself  had 
already  remarked  that  the  buildings  round  the  Forum  are 
certainly  subsequent  to  the  Eoman  occupation,  and  probably 
belong  to  a  late  period  of  it.  Fm-ther,  if  there  was  any  round 
temple  in  the  middle  of  the  area,  it  must  evidently  have  con- 
sisted of  wood  ;  and  such  a  building  in  so  public  a  place  does 
not  seem  at  all  in  accordance  vrith  the  Eoman  notions  of  the 
worship  of  Yesta. 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  many  reasons  for  thinking 
that  the  building  in  question  was  destined  for  the  worship  of 
Augustus,  and  for  the  use  of  his  priests,  the  collegium  of 
Augustals.  Many  things  show  that  Augustus  was  the  object 
of  peculiar  veneration  at  Pompeii.  His  priests,  who,  as  we 
have  said,  are  frequently  mentioned  in  inscriptions,  must  have 
had  a  place  of  meeting  worthy  of  him  they  worshipped,  and 
none  can  be  pointed  out  more  suitable  than  this  building. 
The  statues  of  the  imperial  family  seem  to  confii-m  this  des- 
tination. The  paintings  on  the  wall  representing  combats 
of  galleys  refer  probably  to  the  battle  of  Actium,  while  those 
of  eatables  are  in  allusion  to  the  feasts  given  by  the  Au- 
gustals. 

The  shops  in  the  street  on  the  north  side  of  the  Temple  of 
Augustus  most  probably  supplied  those  who  feasted  with 
dainties ;  and  it  has  been  called  the  Street  of  Dried  Fruits, 
from  the  quantity  of  raisins,  figs,  plums,  and  chesnuts,  fi'uit 
of  several  sorts  preserved  in  vases  of  glass,  hempseed,  and 
lentils.  It  is  now,  however,  more  generally  known  as  the 
Street  of  the  Augustals.     Scales,  monev,  moulds  for  pastry 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEMPLES.  109 

and  bread,  were  discovered  in  the  shops ;  and  a  bronze  statue 
of  Fame,  small,  and  delicately  executed,  having  golden  brace- 
lets round  the  arms. 


Bread,  from  a  painting  on  the  walls  of  the  Temple  of  Augustus. 


Bronze  pastry  mould. 


In  the  northern  entrance  to  the  building  the  name  CELSYM 
is  written  on  a  pilaster ;  near  it  was  found  in  a  box  a  gold 
ring  with  an  engraved  stone  set  in  it.,  forty- one  silver,  and  a 


110 


POMPEII. 


thousand  and  thirty-six  brass  coins.  Here  also  on  both  sides 
of  the  walls  are  representations  of  Cupids  making  bread.  The 
mill  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  picture,  with  an  ass  on  each 
side,  from  which  it  appears  that  these  animals  were  used  in 
grinding  the  flour.  At  the  entrance  to  the  south  a  hatchet  is 
painted,  as  necessary  for  cutting  up  the  meat,  and  the  picture 


Gold  ring  with  an  engraved  stone. 


is  filled  up  with  boars'  heads,  fish,  hams,  &c.  In  other  parts 
of  the  building,  above  the  elegant  paintings  already  men- 
tioned, are  geese,  turkeys,  vases  of  eggs,  fowls,  lobsters,  and 
game  ready  plucked  for  cooking,  oxen,  sheep,  fruit  in  glass 
dishes,  a  cornucopia,  with  various  amphorae  for  wine,  and  many 
other  accessories  for  the  banquet. 

In  the  centre  of  the  court,  near  the  twelve  pedestals,  is  a 
sink,  which  is  said  to  have  been  found  filled  with  fish-bones 
and  remains  of  other  articles  of  food. 

The  adjoining  building  has  been  supposed  by  some  anti- 
quaries to  have  been  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  Augiistals ; 
by  others,  a  temple  dedicated  to  three  deities,  on  account  of 
three  recesses,  apparently  for  statues,  in  three  sides  of  the 
building.  It  may  with  more  probability  be  considered  the 
Senaculum,  or  place  of  meeting  for  the  senate,  or  rather  decu- 
rions  ;  its  spacious  area,  eighty- three  feet  by  sixty,  adapts  it 
well  to  this  purpose,  and  the  niches  in  the  wall  may  have  been 
meant  to  receive  statues  of  distinguished  magistrates.  The 
portico  of  this  edifice  was  composed  of  fluted  white  marble 
columns  of  the  Ionic  order,  its  front  ranging  with  the  por- 
tico of  the  Forum  without  interrupting  the  promenade  below. 
There  was  a  staircase  at  the  north  end  of  it,  which  probably 
led  to  the  upper  gallery,  or  ambulatory ;  and  a  passage  may 
also  have  been  formed  over  the  immediate  entrance  to  the 
Senaculum,  communicating  with  the  ambulatory  on  the  other 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


Ill 


112 


POMPEII. 


From  the  paintings  on  the  walls  of  the  Temple  of  Augustus. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


113 


side.  The  columns  of  this  portico  were  of  course  larger  and 
loftier  than  those  of  the  Forum.  Within,  the  pavement  of 
the  area  is  raised  above  the  level  of  the  portico.  On  each 
side,  upon  entering,  are  two  large  recesses,  with  pedestals 


Frcm  the  painiings  in  the  Teu.ple  of  Aiigusius. 

attached  to  the  centre  of  the  back  wall,  possibly  destined  to 
support  the  effigies  of  the  gods  to  whom  the  place  was  sacred. 
The  altar  stands  in  the  centre  of  the  area,  nearly  in  front  of 
each  statue.  The  building  is  terminated  at  the  end  by  a 
semicircular  recess,  where  there  is  a  raised  seat  for  the  chief 
magistrates.  At  the  side  of  one  of  the  recesses  is  a  chamber 
for  records.    This  building,  for  convenience,  may  have  been 

I 


114 


POMPEII. 


entirely  covered,  and  the  liglit  admitted  through  the  portico. 
Whether  light  was  also  admitted  thi-ough  glass  casements  in 


the  roof  or  not  must  remain  conjectural ;  but  that  the  ancients 
were  acquainted  with  the  use  of  glass  windows,  is  sufficiently 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


115 


proved  by  tlie  quantity  of  flat  glass  discovered  during  the  exca- 
vations, and  also  by  its  having  been  found  ingeniously  fitted 
(as  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel)  to  those  rare  and  niinute  open- 
ings which  were  dignified  with  the  name  and  office  of  windows 
in  Pompeii. 

Adjoining  to  the  building  last  described,  within  an  area  of 
fifty- seven  feet  six  inches  by  fifty  feet  seven  inches,  stands 
a  sacellum,  or  small  temple  elevated  on  a  basement.  It  is 
commonly  hnown  as  the  Temple  of  Mercury,  for  which 
appellation,  however,  the  only  grounds  that  can  be  assigned 
are  the  mention  of  such  a  temple  in  Pompeian  inscriptions, 
and  the  precept  of  Vitruvius,*  that  the  Temple  of  Mercury 
should  be  in  the  Forum.  It  is  also  sometimes  called  the 
Temple  of  Quirinus,  though  this  name  rests,  perhaps,  on 
hardly  so  good  a  foundation  as  the  other.  It  is  taken  from 
an  inscription  found  in  front  of  the  temple  recording  the  deeds 
of  Eomulus,  and  his  deification  under  the  name  of  Quirinus. 
This  inscription,  however,  was  not  found  within  the  precincts 
of  the  building,  but  on  the  base  of  a  pillar  in  the  colonnade 
of  the  Forum ;  and  as  there  was  a  precisely  similar  one  on 
the  opposite  side  relating  to  iEneas,  it  is  pretty  evident  that 
they  belonged  to  two  statues  erected  in  honour  of  those  per- 
sonages.j  Nor  is  the  inscription  of  the  kind  that  would  have 
been  placed  under  the  statue  of  a  divinity.  The  original  has 
been  removed  to  the  National  Museum,  and  its  place  is  sup- 
plied by  a  copy.  It  may  be  remarked  that  these  inscriptions 
to  the  reputed  ancestors  of  the  gens  Julia  are  a  further  proof 
of  the  great  honour  in  which  Augustus  was  held  at  Pompeii. 
The  temple  is  now  shut  up  with  a  gate  or  wicket,  and  serves 
as  a  place  of  deposit  for  various  objects  found  in  the  excava- 
tions, but  not  deemed  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  Museum. 
The  temple  is  approached  through  a  narrow  covered  vesti- 
bule, communicating  between  the  court  and  the  Forum.  On 
each  side  of  the  basement  are  stej)s  leading  to  the  platform 

*  De  Architect  i.  7. 

f  These  inscriptions  will  be  found  in  Mommsen,  Nos.  2189.    The  in- 

scription to  Komulus,  as  supplemented  by  Mommsen,  runs  as  follows : — 
*•  Romulus  Mi>rtis  tilius  Uibem  Romam  condidit  et  regnavit  annos  duodequad- 
raginta.  Isque  primus  dux  duce  hostium  Acrone  rege  Caeninensium  interfecto, 
spolia  opima  Jovi  Feretrio  consecravit,  veceptusque  in  Deorum  numerum 
Quirinus  appellatus  est." 


116 


POMPEII. 


of  the  cella ;  in  front  of  it,  in  the  centre  of  the  court,  is  an 
altar  of  white  marble  bearing  an  unfinished  bas-relief,  which 
has  been  imagined  to  represent  Cicero  sacrificing,  from  a 
supposed  resemblance  in  the  principal  figure  to  that  great 
orator.  The  victim  is  led  by  the  servant  (popa),  whose  office 
it  was  to  take  its  life,  naked  to  the  w^aist,  bearing  his  sacri- 
ficial axe  (malleus) ;  he  is  clothed  round  the  middle  with  a 
short  cloth,  which  does  not  descend  to  the  knees.  The  sa- 
crificer  appears  to  be  a  magistrate ;  he  is  crowned  with  a 
wreath,  and  his  robes  partly  cover  his  head.  He  holds  in  his 
hand  a  patera,  as  if  about  to  sprinkle  the  victim,  and  thereby 


Utensils  used  in  sacrificing. 


cleanse  it  from  its  impurities  before  offering  it  to  the  gods. 
The  popa  and  an  attendant  are  also  crowned  with  wreaths. 
A  boy  follows  the  principal  personage,  holding  in  his  hands 
a  vase  and  patera,  or  plate,  and  having  the  sacred  vitta  or 
fillet  hanging  from  his  neck ;  near  him  is  a  figure  holding  a 
patera  filled  apparently  with  bread.  Another  figure  appears 
to  be  sounding  the  tibia,  or  double  flute,  followed  by  lictors, 
with  their  fasces.  The  temple  is  represented  in  the  back- 
ground decorated  with  garlands.  On  the  eastern  and  oppo- 
site side  of  the  altar  is  a  wreath  of  oak  leaves  bound  with  the 
vixta,  having  on  each  side  young  olive  trees  sculptured ;  and 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEJklPLES. 


117 


on  tlie  north  and  south  sides  are  the  various  implements  and 
ornaments  of  sacrifice,  as  the  vase,  the  patera,  vitta,  garlands, 
the  incense  box,  a  ladle,  and  a  spiral  instrument,  the  use  of 
which  is  unknown,  unless  it  belonged  to  the  haruspex,  who 
inspected  the  bowels  of  the  victims,  and  prophesied  of  the 
future  according  to  the  appearances  presented  to  him.  En- 
riched mouldings  decorate  both  the  upper  and  lower  part  of 
the  altar.  The  temj^le,  or  sacellum,  is  built  of  stone,  and 
decorated  on  the  outside  with  pilasters  ;  its  external  dimen- 
sions are  but  fifteen  feet  six  inches  by  thirteen  feet  eight 
inches,  so  as  not  to  admit  much  more  than  the  statue  whose 
pedestal  still  remains.    The  peribolus,  or  wall  surrounding 


Ornaments  of  sacrifice  on  the  sides  of  the  altar. 


the  whole,  is  constructed  of  brick,  and,  as  is  shown  in  the 
cut,  is  divided  by  pilasters  into  compartments,  in  which 
are  sunk  panels,  surmounted  at  the  top  by  a  running  orna- 
ment consisting  of  a  series  of  triangles  and  segments  of 
circles  placed  alternately.  This  brickwork  having  never 
been  covered  with  stucco,  and  the  altar  being  unfinished,  a 
conjecture  has  been  formed  that  the  Pompeians  were  dis- 
turbed by  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  while  they  were  rebuild- 
ing this  very  temple,  which  had  perhaps  been  destroyed  by 
the  previous  earthquake.  Here  also,  as  in  almost  every 
building  destined  for  religious  purposes,  were  apartments  for 
priests,  and  in  them  was  found  a  store  of  amphorae,  or  large 
earthen  vessels  in  which  wine  was  kept. 

The  building  next  in  succession  partakes  of  the  nature  of 
a  basilica,  but  was  probably  a  sort  of  exchange.     On  the 


118 


POMPEII. 


arcliitrave  over  the  side-entrance  from  the  Street  of  Abun- 
dance, Yfhich  runs  nearly  at  right  angles  to  this  side  of  the 
Forum,  is  the  following  inscription,  which  has  been  repeated 
on  large  blocks  of  marble  found  in  the  Forum  :  — 

EUMACHIA.  L.F.  SACERD.  PUBLIC.  KOMINE.  SUO.  ET. 
M.  NUMISTRI.  FKONTOXIS.  FILL  CHALCIDICUM. 
CRYPTAM.  PORTICUS.  CONCORDLE.  AUGUST.E. 
PIETATI.  SUA  PEQUNIA.  FECIT  EADEMQUE 
DEDICAVIT. 

We  learn  from  hence  that  a  priestess  of  the  name  of 
Eumachia  erected  at  her  own  expense,  and  in  the  name  of 
herself  and  her  son,  a  chalcidicum,  a  crypt,  or  walled  gal- 
lery,* and  a  portico,  and  dedicated  them  to  Pietas  and  Con- 
cordia Augusta.  The  meaning  of  the  two  last  w^ords  is  plain 
enough,  and  the  situation  of  the  portico  and  crypt  in  the 
building  in  question  can  be  pointed  out  wdth  tolerable  cer- 
tainty, the  former  being  the  inner  colonnade  or  peristyle 
surrounding  the  area  of  the  building,  the  latter  the  outer 
gallery  adjoining  it.  But  the  exact  meaning  of  the  word 
chalcidicum  has  never  been  satisfactorily  ascertained.  If  we 
adopt  the  authority  of  Yitruvius,  chalcidica  would  appear  to 
have  been  apartments  annexed  to  one  end  of  a  basilica,  to 
diminish  its  area  if  of  too  great  a  length.j  Those  who 
accept  this  interpretation  find  the  chalcidicum  in  the  por- 
tico or  hall  at  the  entrance  of  the  building,  or  more 
probably  in  the  narrow  space  behind  it,  in  w^hich  is  the 
statue  of  Eumachia,  cut  off  apparently  to  reduce  the  build- 
ing to  a  regular  form.  According  to  another  opinion,  the 
name  chalcidicum  might  mean  the  whole  building ;  and 
this  explanation  seems  to  be  favoured  by  a  passage  in 
Arnobius,  where  he  expresses  his  desire  to  see  the  gods  in 
those  vast  chalcidica  and  palaces  of  heaven. J  Nor  can  we 
easily  explain  the  chalcidicum,  recorded  in  the  Monumentum 
Ancyranum  to  have  been  erected  by  Augustus  next  to  the 
Curia  at  Eome,  except  on  the  supposition  that  it  was  a  sub- 

*  A  crypto-portico  (from  Kpyirrog,  hidden)  is  a  gallery,  in  which  the  columns 
on  the  interior  are  replaced  by  wails,  merely  pierced  for  windows. 

t  Sin  autem  locus  erit  amplior  in  longitudine,  Chalcidica  in  extremis  con- 
stituantur. 

X  A  vet  animus  atque  ardet  in  chalcidicis  ill  is  magnis  atque  in  palatiis  coeli 
decs  deasque  conspicere  intectis  corporibus.    Am.  lib.  iii. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


119 


stantive  building.*"  That  the  inscription,  after  mentioning 
the  chalcidicum  as  a  whole,  should  proceed  to  enumerate 
some  of  its  parts,  is  not  unprecedented  ;  since  an  inscription 
relating  to  the  theatre,  besides  naming  that  building,  alludes 
to  its  crypta  and  trihunalia.^ 

At  the  bottom  of  the  building  is  a  large  semicircular 
recess,  behind  which,  in  the  crypto-portico,  was  a  statue  of 
Eumachia,  now  replaced  by  a  cast.  It  is  five  feet  four  inches 
in  height,  and  stands  on  a  pedestal  placed  in  a  niche  in  the 
centre  of  the  wall,  with  this  inscription  : — 

EUMACHIiE.  L.  F. 
SACERD.  PUBL. 
FULLONES 

from  which  it  would  appear  that  the  cloth-scourers  had,  in 
gratitude  to  Eumachia,  erected  this  statue  to  her  memory. 
The  whole  structure  consists  of  a  large  area,  about  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  feet  by  sixty-five,  surrounded  by  a  double 
gallery,  and  has  in  front  a  pscudo- dipteral  portico  of  eighteen 
columns,  elevated  on  pedestals.  Under  its  centre  was  the 
great  public  entrance,  which  was  closed  with  folding  doors, 
turning  in  sockets  of  bronze,  and  secured  by  bolts  shot  into 
the  holes  still  remaining  in  the  marble  threshold.  This 
entrance  was  flanked  by  two  large  circular  recesses,  one  on 
each  side ;  and  beyond  these  again,  at  the  extreme  end  of  the 
building,  by  raised  platforms,  the  staircases  to  which  still 
remain.  Hence  orators  might  have  harangued  an  audience 
sheltered  under  the  portico,  and  edicts  relative  to  commerce 
might  have  been  publicly  read. 

The  entrance  to  the  area  is  through  a  passage,  on  each  side 
of  which  are  other  passages,  with  a  staircase  on  the  right 
leading  to  galleries  above.  The  entrance  to  the  back  of  the 
building,  where  is  the  statue  of  Eumachia,  is  from  the  Street 
of  Abundance,  forming  the  southern  boundary  of  the  build- 
ing. Here  is  a  small  chamber  for  the  doorkeeper,  through 
which  is  seen  a  flight  of  steps  ascending  to  the  floor  of  the 
chalcidicum  and  crypto-portico ;  the  walls  on  each  side  of  the 
steps  are  painted  in  black  panels,  divided  by  red  pilasters. 
Under  the  staircase  are  the  remains  of  a  thermopolium,  or 

*  See  Dyer's  Rome,  pp.  191  and  198. 

t  See  Os^erbeck,  B.  i.  S.  122,  and  the  inscription  in  Mommsen.  No.  2229 


POMPEII. 


Urn  for  warm  decoctions  drunk  in  the  Thermopolia 


Section  of  the  urn. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


121 


shop  where  warm  water  and  warm  decoctions  were  sold.'^"  A 
curious  vessel  for  making  these  preparations  has  been  dis- 
covered, something  like  a  modern  urn,  but  much  more  compli- 
cated. The  annexed  figure  shows  a  section  of  the  urn  with  its 
conical  cover :  a  a  is  the  body  of  the  urn,  6,  a  small  cylindri- 
cal furnace  in  the  centre ;  it  has  four  holes  in  the  bottom,  as 
shown  in  the  plan  at  meant  to  let  the  ashes  fall  through 
and  to  create  a  draught ;  c,  a  vase-shaped  mouth,  by  means  of 
which  the  water  was  poured  in,  serving  also  for  the  escape  of 
steam ;  (i,  a  tube  which,  by  means  of  a  cock,  served  to  let 
off  the  fluid — it  is  placed  thus  high  to  prevent  the  pipe  being 
stopped  up  by  the  ingredient  decocted  ;  a  conical  cover, 
the  hollow  of  which  is  closed  by  a  thin  plate  somewhat  con- 
cave ;  /,  a  moveable  flat  cover,  with  a  hole  in  the  middle, 
which  closes  the  whole  urn  except  the  mouth  of  the  small 
furnace ;  m  m,  nuts  and  screws  which  fasten  this  moveable 
cover  on  the  rim  of  the  urn;  i%  rim,  convex  on  the  outside 
and  concave  within,  which,  the  cover  being  put  on,  receives 
into  its  concavity  the  rim  of  the  mouth  of  the  furnace. 

The  edifice  erected  by  Eumachia  had  a  peristyle  or  unin- 
terrupted colonnade  of  white  marble  Corinthian  columns, 
admirably  executed.  Unfortunately,  only  a  small  portion 
of  one  pillar  remains  ;  still  their  plan  and  disposition  are 
exactly  determined  by  the  marble  stylobate  on  which  they 
were  placed.  Their  total  disappearance  has  been  accounted 
for  by  supposing  that  the  Pompeians  themselves,  or  perhaps 
Alexander  Severus,  had  dug  up  and  carried  off  these  expen- 
sive ornaments  subsequently  to  the  demolition  of  their  city. 
Behind  this  peristyle  the  crypto-portico  ran  round  thi-ee  sides 
of  the  building,  forming  the  external  boundary  on  the  north, 
south,  and  east  sides.  It  was  lighted  by  windows  placed  at 
regular  intervals,  having  marble  lintels,  to  which  moveable 
windows  were  temporarily  fixed ;  but  these  openings  do  not 
always  front  the  spaces  between  the  columns  of  the  area. 
The  east  end  must  have  been  darker  than  the  north  and  south 
sides,  from  the  light  being  intercepted  by  the  building 
behind.  It  appears,  however,  that  this  inconvenience  was 
obviated  by  a  borrowed  light  through  that  building  itself, 
the  back  and  front  of  which  were  pierced  with  apertures. 


*  Donaldson's  Pompeii. 


122 


P03IPEIT. 


There  were  most  probably  vrooden  galleries  above  the  colon- 
nade and  crypto-portico,  and  the  upper  cornice  seems  to  have 
projected  far  into  the  area,  thus  protecting  numerous  little 
tables  built  of  lava  and  covered  with  marble,  which  served 
for  the  purpose  of  displaying  the  goods  which  were  here 
exhibited  and  sold  ;  for  it  ai^pears  probable  that  this  building 
was  for  the  use  of  the  Pompeian  manufactui'ers  of  cloth, 
whose  gratitude  to  Eumachia  is  expressed  by  the  statue  and 
inscription  before  mentioned.  On  one  side  of  the  niche 
where  the  statue  of  Eumachia  is  placed  was  a  false  door,  six 
feet  wide  and  ten  and  a  half  high,  painted  on  the  stucco  to 
correspond  with  the  opening  on  the  other  sid^ ;  it  was  of  a 
yellow  colour,  and  framed  with  styles  and  panels  like  those 


Statue  of  Eumachia  and  false  door. 


now  in  use.  It  was  divided  perpendicularly  into  three  com- 
partments. This  door  may  be  presumed  to  be  similar  to  the 
door  at  the  entrance  from  the  Street  of  Abundance.  To 
make  the  representation  more  exact,  the  ring  which  served 
for  a  handle  had  been  imitated.  The  walls  of  the  crypto- 
portico  are  also  divided  into  large  panels,  painted  alternately 
red  and  yellow,  and  decorated  in  the  prevalent  fashion ;  not 
the  least  singular  part  of  which,  as  demonstrative  of  ancient 
horticultural  taste,  are  the  representations  of  borders  of 
flowers  along  the  bottom  of  the  walls,  rej)resenting  a  plant 
similar  to  the  iris,  except  that  the  colour  of  the  flower  is 
vermilion.  In  the  centre  of  each  panel  is  a  small  figure  or 
landscape. 

It  is  probable,  as  we  have  already  said,  that  this  further 


DESCKIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


123 


part  of  the  building  was  the  chalcidicum  mentioned  in  the 
inscription,  unless  indeed  that  name  should  not  rather  be 
applied  to  the  whole  of  it.  The  situation  of  this  further 
part  corresponds,  at  all  events,  with  the  precept  of  Vitruvius, 
that  chalcidica  should  be  cut  off  from  one  or  both  ends  of 
a  basilica  if  the  area  is  longer  than  it  ought  to  be;  and 
in  this  case  such  an  addition  was  necessary  in  order  to 
reduce  the  form  of  the  main  building  to  a  perfect  jjarallelo- 
gram.  This  part  is  raised  above  the  level  of  the  area,  and 
must  have  had  temporary  steps  of  wood ;  it  is  divided  into 
two  portions  by  the  recess  already  mentioned.  Near  this 
was  found  a  statue  without  the  head ;  the  robe  with  which 
it  was  draped  was  edged  with  a  gilded  or  red  stripe. 
Such  an  enclosed  space  was  almost  necessary  (if  we  are 
right  in  considering  it  as  a  sort  of  cloth-market)  for  the  safe 
custody  of  goods  which  remained  unsold  ;  as  were  the  tables 
under  the  projecting  cornice  for  the  display  of  goods,  and  the 
crypto-portico,  or  inclosed  gallery  for  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness during  the  Avinter.  The  recess  in  the  centre  may  also 
have  been  occupied  by  a  magistrate,  who  ratified  the  sales, 
received  the  impost,  if  any  was  levied,  and  settled  all  disputes 
arising  from  the  commercial  transactions.  The  building 
appears  to  have  been  repairing  at  the  time  of  the  eruption,  as 
a  piece  of  marble  was  found  on  the  spot,  with  a  line  di-awn  in 
charcoal,  to  guide  the  chisel  of  the  mason. 

On  the  external  wall  of  the  crypt,  whose  recesses  or  false 
windows  served  as  albums,  was  a  notice  of  a  gladiatorial 
show,  as  well  as  an  inscription  tending  to  prove  the  opulence 
of  the  city.  It  is  to  the  effect  that  "  all  the  goldsmiths  in- 
voked Caius  Cuspius  Pansa  the  iEdile." 

The  only  other  building  on  the  east  side  of  the  Forum  is 
that  commonly  called  the  School  of  Yerna.  It  is  separated 
by  the  Street  of  Abundance  from  the  Chalcidicum,  on  the 
album  of  which  the  following  inscription  was  found,  which 
gave  rise  to  the  name  of  the  building  in  question  :- 

C.  CAPELLAM.  D.  V.  I.  D.  0.  V.  F.  VERNA 
CUM  DISCENTIBUS. 

That  is,  "Verna  with  his  pupils  requests  you  to  make 
C.  Capella  Duumvir  for  administering  justice."  But  as  this 
inscription  was  not  found  on  the  building  itself,  little  can  be 


124 


POMPEII. 


inferred  from  it.  Some  have  imagined  tliat  they  recognized 
in  the  building  all  the  characteristics  of  an  eastern  school ; 
while  others  have  thought  that  the  podium,  or  bench,  which 
it  contained,  marks  it  out  as  a  place  of  commerce.  The  fact 
is  that  its  destination,  like  that  of  many  other  places  in 
Pompeii,  can  only  be  guessed  at. 

The  Southend  of  the  Forum  is  occupied  by  three  buildings, 
which  much  resemble  one  another  in  their  plan,  and  are 
nearly  of  the  same  size.  In  the  absence  of  all  inscriptions, 
we  have  supposed  two  of  these  to  be  curiae,  or  places  of 
assembly  for  the  magistrates,  and  the  central  one  an  serarium, 
or  treasury.  Others  have  thought  them  to  be  courts  of 
justice  for  small  causes,  or  police  courts.  They  have  un- 
doubtedly been  highly  decorated  with  marble  statues  and 
columns,  fragments  of  which,  together  with  pedestals  for  the 
latter,  still  remain  on  the  floors ;  and  it  is  said  that  many 
gold,  silver,  and  copper  coins  were  found  in  one  of  them. 
The  floors  are  elevated  above  the  colonnade,  and  are  reached 
by  steps  :  they  have  a  circular  recess  at  the  end  for  a  tri- 
bunal, where  a  magistrate  might  preside  over  the  meetings  in 
the  curiae,  and  a  quaestor  attend  to  his  duties  in  the  public 
treasury.  These  buildings  strike  the  eye  of  the  traveller 
upon  first  entering  the  Forum,  from  the  high  dark-red  masses 
of  brick  contrasting  with  the  verdant  mountains  at  their  back, 
and  the  low  limy  buildings  around  them.  We  are  inclined 
to  think  that  they  were  divided  into  two  stories,  from  traces 
of  stairs  which  would  have  led  to  the  upper  floor,  and  also  to 
the  wooden  gallery  above  the  Forum.  There  is  a  narrow 
passage  between  the  western  curia  and  the  aerarium. 

On  the  western  side  of  the  Forum  are  the  basilica,  a  temple 
supposed  to  be  dedicated  to  Venus,  and  the  public  granaries 
and  prisons,  which  latter  have  been  already  noticed.  The 
basilica,*  or  court  of  justice,  is  the  largest  building  in 
Pompeii.  It  is  of  an  oblong  form,  two  hundi-ed  and  twenty  feet 
in  length  by  eighty,  and  corresponds  in  some  particulars  with 

*  The  destination  of  this  building,  which  is  pretty  plain  from  its  construc- 
tion, is  accidentallv  confirmed  by  a  graffito  of  the  word  "  Bassilica  "  (though 
somewhat  misspelt)  near  one  of  its  side  entrances.  See  Wordsworth,  Inscrip- 
tiones  Fompeiance,  p.  14 ;  Garrucci,  Graffiti  de  Pompei,  p.  81.  Another 
graffito,  bearing  the  date  of  the  consulship  of  Lepidus  and  Catulus,  shows 
that  the  building  was  older  than  B.C.  79. 


DESCEIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


125 


the  usual  ancient  description  of  tliat  building.  It  is  placed 
on  the  warmest  side  of  the  Forum,  at  its  south-west  angle, 
and  is  entered  through  a  vestibule  having  five  doorways  of 
masonry,  in  which  grooves  have  been  cut  for  the  insertion  of 
wooden  door-jambs.  From  the  vestibule  the  area  of  the 
basilica  is  reached  by  a  flight  of  four  steps,  leading  through 
five  doorways,  as  in  the  vestibule.  The  roof  was  supported 
by  a  peristyle  of  twenty-eight  large  Ionic  columns,  con- 


Plan  showing  the  construction  of  the  columns  of  the  Basilica. 

structed  of  brick.  Thus  the  space  between  the  exterior  walls 
and  the  peristyl(a  was  converted  into  a  covered  gallery,  where 
the  suitors  were  sheltered  from  the  weather,  while  the  light 
was  admitted  hypaethrally  from  the  centre  of  the  peristyle. 
The  tribunal  was  placed  at  the  furthest  end  of  the  building, 
and  on  each  side  of  it  were  two  square  chalcidica ;  a  smaller 
order  of  half  columns  was  attached  to  the  walls,  and  four 
whole  columns  flank  and  divide  the  principal  entrance  ;  at 
each  corner  of  the  building  two  columns  are  joined  together, 
something  in  the  manner  of  a  Gothic  pier.  This  we  believe 
to  be  a  unique  example  of  columns  being  thus  united  in 
Grecian  architecture.  Upon  this  smaller  order  the  joists  of 
the  upper  gallery  must  have  rested  at  one  end :  the  other 
most  probably  was  let  into  the  shaft  of  the  larger  column,  as 
the  smaller  is  placed  immediately  behind  it.    The  gallery 


126 


POMPEII. 


projected  as  far  as  the  centre  of  the  large  columns.  Along 
the  intercolumniations  ran  a  pluteum,  or  parapet,  high  enough 
to  prevent  persons  from  falling  over :  this  was  most  probably 
repeated  all  round  the  back  of  the  gallery,  on  the  face  of  the 
lateral  walls,  upon  which,  as  a  basement,  a  second  order  was 
raised.  The  aggregate  height  of  the  two  smaller  orders  was 
most  probably  equal  to  that  of  the  larger  order  of  the  peri- 
style, and  the  roof  was  sustained,  as  has  been  before  men- 
tioned, by  the  lateral  walls  and  the  columns  of  the  peristyle, 
which  rose  to  the  same  height. 

The  second  gallery  was  reached  by  a  staircase,  placed 
without  the  building  ;  the  roof  also  may  have  inclined  in- 
wards, and  the  water  have  been  carried  away  by  channels 
sunk  round  the  marble  floors ;  but  there  are  no  remains  of 
these  floors,  and  as  the  place  bears  evident  marks  of  having 
been  excavated  by  the  ancients,  possibly  for  records  of  im- 
portant trials,  it  would  appear  that  they  had,  at  the  same 
time,  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  afforded  them  to 
carry  away  the  pavement  of  the  building,  of  which  only  the 
pozzuolano,  in  which  it  was  bedded,  remains.  In  the  centre 
of  the  lateral  wall  are  two  entrances,  near  which  are  wells. 
At  the  furthest  end  was  raised  the  tribunal  for  the  praetor,  or 
judge,  which  must  have  been  ascended  by  wooden  steps  :  it  is 
decorated  with  small  columns,  between  which,  at  the  back, 
were  small  apertures,  and  at  the  sides  closets,  probably  for 
robes  of  office.  Beneath  were  temporary  dungeons  for 
the  accused  ;  and  there  are  two  holes  in  the  floor,  through 
which  orders  were  transmitted  to  the  person  in  charge  of  the 
prisoners.  In  front  of  the  tribunal  was  a  pedestal,  on  which 
the  legs  of  a  bronze  statue  were  found.  On  each  side  of  the 
tribunal  were  two  enclosed  apartments,  intended  probably  for 
the  use  of  suitors  and  their  advocates,  or  the  officers,  lictors, 
and  necessary  attendants  of  the  courts.  The  external  walls 
are  quite  plain ;  but  in  the  interior,  courses  of  masonry  are 
represented  in  stucco,  painted  with  various  colours  in  imita- 
tion of  marble.  Inscriptions  have  been  faintly  scratched 
on  these  walls  by  the  loiterers  in  the  courts,  by  no  means  re- 
markable for  correctness  either  in  style  or  sentiment.  The 
large  fluted  columns  which  support  the  roof  are  singularly 
constructed  with  bricks  and  pieces  of  tufa,  radiating  from 
the  centre,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  foregoing  plan,  showing  two 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


127 


alternate  layers.  All,  whether  of  stone  or  brick,  are  covered, 
as  well  as  the  walls,  with  a  fine  marble  stucco  of  great  hard- 
ness. The  opinion  here  expressed,  that  the  lateral  walls 
reached  to  the  height  of  the  larger  order,  varies  from  that 
adopted  by  Sir  W.  Gell,  Vv^ho  thinks  that  the  peristyle  alone 
supported  the  principal  roof,  called  testudo,  and  that  it  rose 
above  the  rest  of  the  building.  He  also  thinks  that  the  roof 
of  the  gallery  or  portico  round  the  testudo  inclined  inwards, 
resting  against  the  shaft  of  the  large  columns  of  the  peristyle, 
and  thus  cutting  in  two  parts  the  most  important  feature  of 
the  whole  building.  We  dissent  from  this,  because,  had  the 
construction  been  such  as  Sir  W.  Gell  supposes,  the  whole 
would  have  been  covered  ;  and  such  ingenious  architects  as 
the  Pompeians  employed  would  hardly  have  built  the  roof 
of  the  surrounding  gallery  so  as  to  throw  its  dripj)ings  into 
the  area  within  the  peristyle,  which,  being  covered,  would 
have  been  the  favourite  place  of  assembly. 

Next  to  the  basilica,  which  is  an  isolated  building,  is  a 
temple,  said  to  be  dedicated  to  Venus,  separated  from  it  by  a 
street  leading  from  the  Sea  Gate  to  the  Forum.  This  temple 
is  the  largest  and  finest  in  Pompeii,  and  the  only  peripteral 
one.  Some  authorities  have  called  it  a  Temple  of  Bacchus,  from 
a  painting  which  it  contains  of  a  Bacchic  character ;  while 
others  have  considered  it  to  have  been  dedicated  to  Mercury 
and  Maia ;  an  inference,  however,  which  rests  on  a  very  far- 
fetched interpretation  of  an  inscription.*  There  are  several 
considerations  which  lead  us  to  think  that  the  common  name 
is  the  best.  For  first,  it  is  natural  that  Venus,  who,  as  we 
have  seen,  was  the  patron  goddess  of  Pompeii,  should  have 
had  a  magnificent  temple  set  apart  for  her  worship ;  and  if  we 
reject  this,  it  would  be  difficult  to  fix  upon  any  other  so  likely 
to  have  been  devoted  to  this  purpose.  Again,  the  discovery 
here  of  a  statue,  something  in  the  style  of  the  Medicean  Venus, 
and  of  a  head  of  the  same  goddess,  serves  further  to  mark 
the  destination  of  the  temple.  Further,  it  is  remarked  by 
Breton  and  Overbeck,t  that  the  altar  which  stands  before  the 
cell  is  not  adapted  for  bloody  or  burnt  sacrifices,  but  only  for 
offerings  of  fruits,  cakes,  and  incense,  such  as  were  commonly 
made  to  Venus.    The  following  inscription, found  in  the 

*  Mommsen,  2199.       f  Breton,  Fomp.  p.  54  ;  Overbeck,  B.  i.  S.  102. 
X  ]\Iommsen,  2201. 


128 


POMPEII. 


precincts  of  the  temple,  has  also  been  thought  to  confirm  its 
destination : — 

M.  HOLCOXIVS.  RVFVS.  D.V.I.D.  TERT. 
C.  EGNATIVS.  POSTVMVS.  D.V.I.D.  ITER. 
EX.  D.D.  IVS.  LVMINVM. 
OPSTRYENDORVM.  H.S.   oc  oc  oo 
REDEMERVNT.  PARIETEMQVE. 
PRIVATVM.  COL.  VEX.  COR. 

VSQVE.  AT.  TEGULAS. 

FACIVXDVM.  C(ERARVXT.* 

Which  has  been  interpreted :  "  Marcus  Holconius  Eufus, 
and  Caius  Ignatius  Posthumus,  duumvirs  of  justice  for  the 
third  time,  by  a  decree  of  the  Decurions,  bought  again  the 
right  of  closing  the  openings  for  three  thousand  sesterces,  and 
took  care  to  erect  a  private  wall  to  the  college  of  the  incor- 
porated Yenereans  up  to  the  roof."  But  this  interpretation, 
which  was  given  by  Mazois,  is  inadmissible,  inasmuch  as  the 
letters  COR  cannot  stand  for  corporationis,  a  word  not  used  in 
Latin  of  the  classical  age  to  denote  a  society  or  community. 
On  the  other  hand,  if,  with  Breton  |  and  Mommsen,;!:  we 
render  the  words  "  parietemque  privatum  Col.  Yen.  Cor.,"  by 
"  the  private  wall  of  the  colony  Veneria  Cornelia,'"  it  is  impos- 
sible to  understand  their  meaning. 

The  temple  in  question  is  peripteral  and  amphiprostyle, 
and  is  elevated  on  a  j)odium,  or  basement.  The  portico  in 
front  of  the  cell  is  tetrastyle  and  pseudodipteral,  and  the 
colunms  are  set  araeostyle.  Within  the  cell,  which  was  very 
small,  a  beautiful  mosaic  bordre  was  found,  besides  the 
broken  statue  already  mentioned.  The  temple  stood  in  an 
open  area,  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  by  seventy-five,  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  and  portico.  At  the  north  end  was  the 
priests'  apartment,  having  an  outlet  into  the  Forum ;  the 
public  entrance  was  at  the  south.  Opposite  the  latter,  bronze 
ornaments  resembling  the  heads  of  large  nails  were  found, 
with  which  the  door  might  have  been  decorated,  according  to 
a  practice  common  among  the  ancients.  The  columns  of  the 
temple  were  Corinthian,  fluted,  and  in  part  painted  blue; 
those  of  the  colonnade  were  originally  Doric,  but  afterwards 
altered  to  Corinthian,  varying  in  detail,  very  ill  designed,  and 

*  Donaldson.  t  Pompria,]).  51.  +  Ad  locum. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


129 


badly  executed.  A  perforation  has  been  made  in  one  of  the 
latter  to  receive  a  pipe,  through  which  water  for  the  sacrifices 


Mosaic  border. 


flowed  into  a  basin  placed  upon  a  circular  fluted  pedestal.  The 
lower  third  of  them  is  painted  yellow,  the  rest  is  white.  The 
details,  or  characteristic  ornaments  of  the  original  Doric  order, 

K 


130 


POMPEII. 


are  added  with  tiles  and  stucco,  and  tlie  surface  of  tlie  archi- 
trave is  painted  with  an  endless  variety  of  ornament.  Both  a 
consular  and  a  terminal  figure  were  found  here,  but  there  is  no 
reason  for  supposing  that  one  of  the  latter  was  placed  before 
each  column  of  the  colonnade.  Channels  were  formed  round 
the  area,  under  the  cornice  of  this  colonnade,  to  carry  off  the 
water  from  the  roof,  which  inclined  inwards  like  a  shed.  The 
ascent  to  the  cell  of  the  temple  was  by  a  flight  of  steps,  on 
each  side  of  which  were  pedestals ;  near  one  of  them  lay  an 


Ionic  votive  column,  with  a  tablet  carved  in  relief  upon  its 
shaft,  meant  to  receive  the  inscription  stating  by  whom  and 
on  what  occasion  it  was  consecrated.  The  cell  had  a  pilaster 
at  each  of  the  external  angles,  and  the  walls  were  stuccoed  in 
imitation  of  masonry.  In  front  of  the  steps  was  the  great 
altar.  An  inscription  on  the  east  side  of  it,  which  is  repeated 
on  the  west,  records  that  the  Quatuorviri,  M.  PORCIUS, 


L.  SEXTILIUS,  CN.  COENELIUS,  and  A.  COEXELTUS, 


erected  the  altar  at  their  own  expense.  The  walls  under  the 
colonnade  were  painted  in  vivid  colours,  principally  on  a 
black  ground,  representing  landscapes,  country-houses,  and 


Terminal  figure  in  the  Temple  of  Venus. 


])\varf<,  from  a  painting  at  Pompeii. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


131 


interiors  of  rooms  with  figures,  but  they  are  now  almost 
effaced.  The  groups  of  figures  consisted  of  dancers,  sacri- 
ficers  to  Priapus,  battles  with  crocodiles,  &c. ;  one  represented 
Hector  tied  to  the  car  of  Achilles,  another  the  dispute  between 
Achilles  and  Agamemnon,  and  near  the  ground  was  a  long 
series  of  dwarfish  figures.  In  the  apartment  of  the  priest  Avas 
found  a  very  beautiful  painting  of  Bacchus  and  Silenus.  This, 
which  may  still  be  seen,  had  been  removed  by  the  ancients  from 
some  other  place,  and  carefully  fastened  with  iron  cramps 
and  cement  in  its  present  situation.  In  a  recess,  at  the  north- 


Painting  of  Bacchus  and  Silenns.  in  the  apartment  of  the  priest  in  the 
'1  emple  of  Venus. 

east  end  of  the  temple,  under  the  colonnade  of  the  Forum, 
stood  the  public  measures  for  wine,  oil,  and  grain.  The 
originals  have  been  carried  to  the  Museum,  and  those  now 
seen  in  situ  are  copies.  These  consist  of  nine  cylindrical 
holes  cut  in  an  oblong  block  of  tufa  ;  there  are  five  large  for 
grain,  and  four  smaller  for  wine  :  the  former  had  a  sliding 
bottom,  that  the  grain  when  measured  might  be  easily  re- 
moved. The  latter  are  provided  with  tubes  to  draw  off  the 
liquid.  These  measures  are  placed  near  what  we  have  already 
supposed  to  be  the  horrea,  or  public  granaries. 

Having  thus  completed  the  circuit  of  the  Forum,  it  only 
remains  to  mention  a  few  less  important  matters.  A  portico, 
as  we  have  often  had  occasion  to  mention,  surrounds  three 


1H2 


POMPEII. 


sides  of  this  space :  we  will  now  speak  more  particularly  of 
its  construction.  The  columns  are  twelve  feet  high,  and  two 
feet  three  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter ;  they  were  set  araeo- 
style,  about  three  and  a  half  diameters,  or  eight  feet  six  inches 
apart.  It  has  been  already  mentioned  as  an  objection  to  this 
width  of  intercolumniation,  that,  except  where  masses  of  stone 
of  unusual  size  could  be  commanded,  the  architraves  were 


Coustruction  in  wood  and  sloiic  of  il.e  ara?ust3'le  portico  oT  the  1  oriim. 

necessarily  -either  flat  arches  or  beams  of  wood  (h).  Here 
the  latter  material  was  used,  and  a  stone  entablature  (d) 
raised  upon  it,  as  represented  in  the  annexed  engraving. 
Above  this  there  probably  was  a  gallery  ;*  such  at  least,  we 
learn  from  Vitruvius,  was  the  general  practice ;  and  this  gal- 
lery was  usually  appropriated  to  the  use  of  those  who  had  the 
management  of  the  public  revenue. 

Tiie  area  of  the  Forum  was  adorned  with  pedestals,  for  the 
statues  of  those  who  merited  or  could  procm-e  this  distinction. 
Some  are  of  the  proportion  adapted  to  equestrian  statues. 
They  were  all  coated  with  white  marble,  ornamented  with 
a  Doric  frieze :  and  appear  to  have  been  still  in  process  of 
erection,  I  to  replace  an  older  set  of  pedestals,  at  the  time 

*  In  the  holes  at  c  the  joists  of  the  floor  of  the  upper  gallery  were  most 
probably  fixed. 

t  It  is  more  probable  that  the  marble  was  subsequently  stripped  off  tliem. 
Five  pedestals  still  retain  their  marble  in  whole  or  in  part. 


DESCEIPTION  OF  TEMPLES. 


133 


when  Pompeii  was  destroyed.  Some  are  inscribed  with 
names,  and  on  one  of  them  may  be  read  that  of  Pansa.  At 
the  south  end  is  a  small  isolated  arch,  on  which  possibly  the 
tutelary  genius  of  the  city  might  have  been  placed.  Such 


was  the  construction  of  a  Eoman  forum  :  the  reader  will  not 
be  at  a  loss  to  appreciate  its  combined  utility  and  magnifi- 
cence. Some  surprise  may  be  felt  at  the  expense  lavished  so 
prodigally  on  public  buildings  in  an  inconsiderable  town. 


134 


POMPEII. 


But  the  Romans  lived  in  public,  and  depended  on  the  public 
for  tbeii"  amusements  and  pleasure.  "  A  Eoman  citizen," 
says  M.  Simond,  went  out  early,  and  did  not  return  bome 
until  the  evening  repast ;  he  spent  his  dav  in  the  formn,  at 
the  baths,  at  the  theatre — everywhere,  in  short,  exce-pt  at  his 
own  home,  where  he  slept  in  a  small  room,  without  windows, 
without  a  chimney,  and  almost  without  furniture."  Archi- 
tectural splendour  therefore,  both  in  places  of  public  business 
and  of  public  j)leasure,  was  far  more  studied  and  of  far  greater 
importance  than  it  now  is  ;  and  money,  both  public  and  pri- 
vate, was  lavished  upon  such  purposes  with  a  profuseness  far 
more  than  commensurate,  according  to  modern  notions,  with 
the  objects  to  which  it  was  directed.  We  may  add,  to  explain 
the  motives  which  induced  individuals  to  bestow  their  money 
so  freely  in  increasing  the  splendour  of  their  city,  that  there 
was  no  surer  road  to  power  and  influence,  either  in  the  capi- 
tal, or  in  the  smaller  sphere  of  a  provincial  town,  than  by 
gratifying  the  taste  of  the  peoj)le  for  splendour,  either  in 
public  buildings  or  in  the  amusements  of  the  stage  or  the 
amphitheatre. 

The  architecture  of  Pompeii  is  not  always  in  the  best 
taste,  yet  there  is  much  to  admire  in  it,  both  for  the  design 
and  the  execution.  The  restoration  of  the  Forum,  which 
forms  the  frontispiece  t-)  this  volume,  will  convey  to  the 
reader  some  idea  at  once  of  the  artificial  and  natural  beauties 


Male  Centnrir  an-,1  Bacchante. 


135 


Marble  bas-relief  found  in  Pompeii,  repre«:enting  a  warrior,  and  a  black  slave 
driving  liis  biga. 


CHAPTEE  Y. 

THE  REMAINING  TEMPLES  OF  POMPEII. 

The  present  chapter  will  be  devoted  to  the  description  of  the 
remaining  temples  and  some  other  public  buildings  in  various 
quarters  of  the  city. 

At  the  corner  of  the  main  street  leading  to  the  Forum  and 
that  called  the  Street  of  Fortune  is  a  small  Corinthian  temple, 
dedicated  to  Fortune  by  a  private  person,  one  M.  Tullius.  It 
has  been  cased  with  marble  both  within  and  without,  and  is 
accessible  by  two  flights,  of  steps.  The  lower  flight,  broken 
in  the  middle  by  a  podium  or  low  wall,  consists  of  three,  the 
upper  flight  of  eight  stej)s.  There  is  an  altar  placed  upon  the 
podium,  which  was  protected  from  wanton  intrusion  by  an 
iron  railing  running  along  the  side-margins  and  in  front  of 
the  steps.  Holes  for  the  reception  of  the  uprights  still 
remain,  together  with  pieces  of  iron.  The  portico  has  four 
columns  in  front  and  two  at  the  sides,  and  the  external  walls 
of  the  cella  are  decorated  with  pilasters.    At  the  end  of  the 


136 


POilPEII. 


building  is  a  semicircular  niche,  containing  a  small  temple  of 
the  Corinthian  order,  richly  finished  and  designed,  under 
which  the  statue  of  the  goddess  was  placed. 


This  Marcus  Tullius,  who  appears  from  an  inscription  on 
the  architrave  to  have  erected  this  temple,  has  been  supposed 


THE  REMAININGr  TEMPLES  OF  POMPEII. 


137 


to  be  a  descendant  of  the  great  Cicero.  The  belief  rests  on 
two  circumstances  :  on  the  finding  in  the  interior  of  the 
building  a  statue  of  the  size  of  life,  said  to  bear  some  resem- 
blance to  the  busts  of  the  distinguished  orator ;  and  on  an 
inscription  on  the  architrave  of  the  temple,  which  may  still 
be  seen  lying  on  the  floor  of  the  building.  It  runs  as 
follows : — 

M.  TQLLIUS.  M.F.D.V.I.D.  TER.  QUINQQE.  AUGUR.  TR.  MIL. 
A.  POP.  ^i:DEM.  FORTUN.E.  AUG.  SOLO.  ET.  PEQ.  SUA. 

That  is  :  Marcus  Tullius,  son  of  Marcus,  three  times  duumvir 
for  the  administration  of  justice,  Quinquennalis,*  Augur,  and 
Tribune  of  t'he  soldiers  by  election  of  the  people,  erected 
this  temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta  on  his  own  ground  and  at 
his  own  expense."  In  a  small  slip  of  ground  on  the  south- 
east side  of  the  temple  was  found  another  inscription,  running 
as  follows  : — 

M.  TULLII.  M.F. 
AREA  PRIVATA.t 

The  first  of  these  inscriptions,  as  well  as  four  others,  satis- 
factorily ascertain  the  temjile  to  have  been  dedicated  to 
Fortuna  Augusta  ;  but  whether  the  builder  of  it  belonged  to 
the  family  of  M.  Tullius  Cicero,  the  orator,  is  a  question  of 
some  difficulty.  Only  the  father  and  grandfather  of  the  orator 
bore  the  name  of  Marcus  Tullius,  and  some  writers  have  as- 
sumed that  the  temple  was  built  by  one  of  these. J  But,  as 
Overbeck  remarks,  §  the  epithet  Augusta  applied  to  Fortuna 
seems  to  negative  this  assumption,  and  to  show  the  building 
of  the  temple  to  have  been  later  than  the  establishment  of 
the  empire. 

The  statue  before  mentioned  is  clothed  in  the  toga  prae- 
texta,  the  robe  of  office  of  the  lloman  magistrates  ;  and  what 
adds  value  and  singularity  to  the  statue,  this  robe  is  entirely 

*  The  Quinquennalis,  as  we  have  said,  was  a  magistrate  in  colonial  or  mu- 
nicipia,  who  was  elected  every  five  years,  aud  whose  functions  seem  to  have 
resembled  those     the  censor  at  Rome. 

t  For  these  inscriptions,  see  Mommsen,  Nos.  2219,  2221.  Also,  for  other 
inscriptions  relating  to  the  building,  Nos.  2222-6. 

X  Breton,  p.  64. 

§  Pompeii,  B.  i.  S.  95. 


138 


POMPEII. 


painted  with  a  deep  purple  violet  colour.  But  as  in  tlie 
republican  times  tlie  praetexta  had  only  a  purple  hem,  and  as 
a  toga  entirely  dyed  with  that  colour  was  an  imperial  dis- 
tinction, first  assumed  by  Julius  Caesar,*  there  seems  reason 
for  believing  that  the  statue  must  have  been  intended  to 
represent  an  emperor,  perhaps  Augustus.  The  probability 
^  of  this  inference  is  increased  by  the  circumstance  of  a  slab 
of  marble  having  been  found  in  the  building,  with  the  follow- 
ing fragmentary  inscription  :| 

STO  C.ESARI 
PARENTI  PATRLE. 

•  A  female  statue,  the  size  of  life,  was  also  found  within  the 
cella,  clothed  in  a  tunic  falling  to  her  feet,  and  above  it  a 
toga.  The  border  of  the  former  is  gilt ;  the  latter  is  edged 
with  a  red  purple  bandeau,  an  inch  and  a  quarter  wide  ;  the 
right  arm  is  pressed  upon  the  bosom,  with  the  hand  elevated 
to  the  chin,  while  the  left  hand  holds  up  the  toga.  The 
face  of  this  figure  has  been  sawn  off.  Some  have  supposed 
this  a  piece  of  economy  of  the  Pompeians,  who,  wishing  to 
pay  a  compliment  to  some  distinguished  person,  had  thought 
that  the  cheapest  way  of  doing  it  was  to  substitute  her  face 
for  that  originally  belonging  to  the  statue. 

It  is  manifest  that  the  ancients  have  made  excavations  on 
this  spot,  and  carried  away  the  columns  of  the  temple  and 
the  marble  with  which  it  was  covered,  both  within  and  with- 
out. Some  of  the  capitals  however  remain  to  show  the 
order  of  its  architecture,  and  enough  is  preserved  to  assure 
us  that  it  was  rich  in  ornament  and  highly  finished. 

Near  the  theatres,  in  the  Street  of  Stabise,  at  the  angle 
which  it  makes  with  the  Street  of  Isis,  is  a  small  temple 
called  the  Temple  of  j5]sculapius.  The  entrance  leads  into 
an  open  court,  in  which  stands  an  altar,'  large  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  building,  peculiar  in  its  character, 
and  bearing  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  sarcophagus  of 
the  Scipios  in  the  Vatican  ;  the  most  remarkable  points 
being  the  trigiyphs  with  which  the  frieze  is  ornamented, 
which  are  of  rare  occurrence  in  constructions  of  this  size 
and  character,  and  the  volutes  at  the  corners,  which  are  not 


*  Cic.  Philipp.  ii.  34.  f  ILst.  Antiq,  Pomp,  t.  ii.  p.  96. 


THE  REMAINING  TEMPLES  OF  POMPEII. 


139 


known  to  occur  elsewhere.  Tlie  court  is  traversed  in  its 
whole  width  by  a  flight  of  nine  steps,  on  the  top  of  which 
stands  the  temple  itself,  comprising  a  small  square  cell,  with 
a  tetrastyle  pseudo-dipteral  portico. 

In  the  cell  were  found  two  terra-cotta  statues  as  large  as 
life,  one  male  the  other  female  ;  they  are  now  preserved  in 
the  terra-cotta  collection  in  the  National  Museum.  The 
female  statue  is  taller  than  the  male,  its  height  being 
8  palms,  while  that  of  the  latter  is  only  H  palms.*  They 
are  supposed  by  many  authorities  to  represent  Jupiter  and 
Juno,  and  hence  the  temple  frequently  bears  the  name  of 
those  deities.  Winkclmann  first  called  them  ^Esculapius 
and  Hygeia,*]"  and  thus  gave  the  temple  a  new  name.  The 
representations  of  Jupiter  and  ^sculapius  are  very  similar 
in  ancient  works  of  art,  so  that,  unless  they  are  accompanied 
by  some  S3rnibols,  it  is  frequently  difficult  to  distinguish 
them.  It  seems  however  hardly  probable,  that  if  these 
statues  represented  Jupiter  and  Juno,  the  goddess  should 
have  been  larger  than  the  god ;  or  that  the  two  chief  divini- 
ties of  Olympus  should  have  been  crowded  into  so  tiny  a 
temple.  There  was  also  found  a  marble  bust  of  Minerva, 
which  has  led  Overbeck  to  talk  about  a  temple  of  the  three 
Capitol ine  deities.l  But  the  size  of  it  is  still  more  adverse 
to  such  a  notion.  On  the  other  hand,  as,  by  some  mytholo- 
gists,  Minerva  is  represented  to  have  been  the  child  of 
iEsculapius  and  Hygeia,  this  bust  might  serve  to  conhrm  the 
idea  of  Winkclmann  ;  and  the  finding  of  several  ex  voto  offer- 
ings of  hands,  feet,  &c.,  in  terra-cotta,  affords  a  further  cor- 
roboration of  it.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  mention  a  third 
name  which  has  been  sometimes  given  to  this  temple,  namely, 
that  of  Neptune,  derived  from  a  head  scul^^tured  on  the 
capitals  of  the  columns,  and  thought  to  represent  that  deity. 
We  need  only  add  that  the  robes  of  the  terra-cotta  statues 
bear  evident  traces  of  having  been  coloured  red. 

Proceeding  westward,  along  the  northern  side  of  the  same 
island  of  building,  we  come  to  the  Temple  of  Isis,  separated 
from  the  Temple  of  -^sculapius  by  a  narrow  passage  leading 
to  the  great  theatre.    The  destination  of  this  temple  is  satis- 

*  Ilist.  Antiq.  Pomp.  t.  i.  p.  194. 

t  Gcsch  dcr  Kuust,  B.  i.  2,  2  ;  B.  v.  1,  32. 

:  B.  i.  S.  88. 


140 


POJIPEII. 


factorily  ascertained  by  the  following  inscription  above  tbe 
entrance  : — 

X.  POPIDIVS.  N.  F.  CELSIXVS. 
.EDEM.  ISIDIS.  TERR.E.  MOTV.  COXLAPSAM 

A.  fvxda:\iexto.  p.  S.  RESTITVIT. 

HVXC.  DECVRIOXES.  OB.  LIBEPvALITATEM. 
CVM.  ESSET.  ANNORVM.  SEXS.  OKDLM.  SVO. 
GRATIS.  ADLEGERVXT* 

"  Numerius  (or  Xonniiis)  Popidius  Celsinus,  son  of  Xiime- 
rius,  restored  from  the  foundation,  at  bis  own  expense,  tbe 
Temple  of  Isis,  overtbi-own  by  an  earthquake.  The  Decu- 
rions,  on  account  of  his  liberality,  elected  him  when  sixty 
years  of  age  to  be  one  of  their  order  free  of  expense."  The 
earthquake  alluded  to  was  probably  that  in  the  year  63,  six- 
teen years  before  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  examples  now  existing  of 
the  parts  and  disposition  of  an  ancient  temple.  A  rude 
Corinthian  portico  encompasses  the  court ;  the  columns  are 
about  one  foot  nine  inches  in  diameter,  the  shafts  painted. 
To  the  two  nearest  the  entrance,  two  lustral  marble  basins, 
now  in  the  Museum  of  Naples,  were  found  attached,  and  a 
wooden  box,  reduced  to  charcoal,  probably  a  begging-box  to 
receive  the  contributions  of  worshippers.  The  eedes,  for  the 
reader  will  observe  that  this  little  building  is  not  in  the  in- 
6cri2:)tion  called  a  temple,  stands  insulated  in  the  centre  of 
the  coui't  on  an  elevated  podium,  and  is  accessible  by  a  flight 
of  steps  occupying  only  part  of  its  front.  On  each  side  of 
the  portico  are  altars.  In  front  of  the  cell  is  a  Corinthian 
tetrastyle  portico,  comprising  six  columns.  It  is  flanked  by 
two  wings,  with  niches  for  the  reception  of  statues  :  behind 
that  on  the  left  are  steps,  and  a  side  entrance  to  the  cell. 
The  whole  exterior  is  faced  with  stucco  decorations,  capri- 
cious in  style,  and  disfigui^ed  by  a  strange  mixture  of  the 
very  commonest  species  of  ornament.  Within  the  temple, 
at  the  further  end,  a  strip  is  parted  off,  probably  for  some 

*  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  Ant.  Hist.  t.  i.  p.  17-4;  :Mommsen,  Xo.  2243.  It  should 
be  stated  that  Mommsen,  as  well  as  Overbeck,  B.  i.  S.  107,  interprets  the  word 
sexs  by  six,  and  explains  the  diliiculty  by  supposing  that  Popidius  was  a  rich 
heir  in  tutelage,  and  that  the  money  was  laid  out  in  his  name  by  his  guardian. 
Overbeck  contends  that  such  a  thing  might  be  done  in  those  days. 


THE  REMAINING  TEMPLES  OF  POMPEII. 


141 


juggling  purposes  connected  witli  the  worship  of  the  temple.* 
In  the  south-east  corner  of  the  enclosure  is  a  small  build- 
ing, ornamented  with  pilasters,  with  an  arched  opening  in 
the  centre,  and  o^ei  the  arch  a  representation  of  figures  in 
the  act  of  adoration;  a  vase  is  placed  between  them.  This 
building  covered  the  sacred  well,  to  which  there  is  a  descent 
by  steps,  and  served  probably  for  purification  of  the  wor- 
shippers and  other  uses  of  the  temple.  The  whole  is  gro- 
tesquely decorated  with  elegant  though  capricious  stuccos, 
and  whimsically  painted.  The  ground-colour  between  the 
pilasters  is  yellow,  that  of  the  frieze  red,  and  the  flat  space 
between  the  arch  and  the  pediment  is  green,  while  within 
the  arch  it  is  yellow.  The  cornice  was  surmounted  by  terra- 
cotta antefixes,  which,  from  a  single  fragment  remaining, 
representing  a  mask,  appear  to  have  been  executed  with  great 
taste  and  skill. 

Before  this  building  stands  the  chief  altar,  which  seems  to 
have  been  placed  in  this  situation  instead  of  immediately 
before  the  cella,  either  to  save  room,  or  else  perhaps  because 
the  ceremonies  required  the  priests  to  visit  the  small  building 
and  the  sacred  well  just  described.  There  were  found  on 
this  altar  the  ashes  and  parts  of  burnt  bones  of  the  victims, 
and  the  white  stuccoed  wall  of  the  adjoining  edifice,  contain- 
ing the  sacred  well,  was  discoloured  with  the  smoke  from  the 
fire.  Opposite  to  it,  on  the  other  side  of  the  coui't,  is  what, 
appears  to  be  a  sort  of  square  fountain,  under  which  Domenico 
Fontana's  canal  now  flows  ;  but  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  it 
was  filled  with  black  ashes,  the  remains  apparently  of  car- 
bonized fruits.f  Before  the  left  wing  of  the  portico  of  the  cell 
is  another  smaller  altar,  probably  intended  for  the  worship  of 
the  deity  whose  statue  may  have  stood  in  the  niche  already 
mentioned.  On  each  side  of  the  steps  leading  up  to  the  cella 
are  two  small  pedestals  which  contained  the  famous  basalt 
Isiac  tables.  One  of  them  was  broken ;  the  other  was  re- 
moved to  the  National  Museum.  It  is  about  five  feet  high 
and  one  and  a  half  broad.    At  the  top  of  it  are  engraved 

*  This  idea  is  rejected  both  by  Breton  and  Overbeck,  the  place  in  question 
being  open  to  tlie  gaze  of  all. 

t  J'omp.  Ant.  ^Hist.  t.  i.  p.  172  (June  8th,  17G5),  and  p.  182  (Dec.  14th). 
Among  the  fruits  were  observed  dates,  chesnuts,  nuts,  figs,  pines,  and  filberts. 
Ibid,  p.  190  (June  21st,  1766). 


142 


POMPEII. 


fourteen  figures,  thirteen  of  wMcli  are  turned  towards  the 
first,  which  is  rather  larger,  and  supposed  to  represent  Osiris. 
Beneath  are  twenty  lines  of  hieroglyphics,  which  have  been 
interpreted  by  the  younger  Champollion  to  be  an  invocation 
to  Osiris  and  Isis.*  By  Overbeck,  however,  it  is  regarded  as 
a  mere  sham,  and  totally  unconnected  with  the  worship  of 
Isis,  either  in  general,  or  at  Pompeii  in  particular.f 

On  the  court  wall,  in  a  niche  fronting  the  temple,  stood  a 
painted  figure  of  Sigaleon,  or  Harpocrates,  called  by  the 
Egyptians  Orus,  the  son  of  Isis,  represented  pressing  his 
forefinger  to  his  lip,  to  impress  silence,  and  intimate  that 
the  mysteries  of  the  worship  were  never  to  be  revealed. 
Beneath  the  niche  is  a  shelf,  intended  perhaps  to  receive 
offerings,  under  v^^hich  a  board  was  found,  supposed  to  have 
been  meant  to  facilitate  kneeling.  In  another  part  of  the 
court .  a  beautiful  figure  of  Isis  was  found  standing  on  its 
pedestal,  the  drapery  painted  purple,  and  in  part  gilt.  She 
held  in  her  right  hand  the  sistrum,  an  instrument  peculiar 
to  her  service,  made  of  bronze,  in  the  form  of  a  racket,  with 
three  loose  bars  across  it,  to  serve  the  purpose  of  cymbals,  or 
other  noisy  instriunents ;  in  her  left,  the  key  of  the  sluices 
of  the  Nile.J 

In  the  south  side  of  the  court,  immediately  opposite  the 
entrance  from  the  street,  there  are  two  chambers  and  a 
kitchen,  with  stoves,  on  which  the  bones  of  fish  and  other 
animals  were  found.  A  skeleton  lay  in  the  outermost  room, 
supposed  to  be  that  of  one  of  the  priests,  who  having  deferred 
probably  to  make  his  escape  until  it  was  too  late  to  do  so  by 
the  door,  was  attempting  to  break  through  the  walls  with  an 
axe.  He  had  already  forced  his  way  through  two,  but  before 
he  could  pass  a  third  Avas  stifled  by  the  vapour.  The  axe 
was  lying  near  his  remains.  Behind  the  temple  is  a  large 
chamber,  forty-two  feet  by  twenty-five,  in  which  another 
skeleton  was  found,  who  seems,  like  his  companion,  to  have 
been  at  dinner,  for  chicken  bones,  egg-shells,  and  earthen 
vases  were  near  him.  In  the  sacred  precinct  lay  many  other 
skeletons,  supposed  those  of  priests,  who  reposing  a  vain 
hope  in  the  power  of  their  deity,  were  unwilling  to  quit 

*  Breton,  Fompeki,  p.  44. 
t  B.  i.  S.  111. 

X  Pomp.  Ant,  Hist.,  Mar.  4,  175G  (t.  i.  p.  185). 


THE  REMAININa  TEMPLES  OF  POMPEII.  143 


her  protection,  and  remained  until  tlie  accumulation  of 
volcanic  matter  prevented  them  from  seeldng  safety  in 
flight.*  Pictures  were  to  be  seen  of  the  priests  of  Isis, 
represented  with  the  head  closely  shaven,  robed  in  white 
linen,  typical  of  the  introduction  of  linen  among  the 
Egyptians  by  Isis.  They  were  bound  by  their  vows  to  celi- 
bacy ;  never  ate  onions ;  abstained  from  salt  to  their  meat, 
and  were  forbidden  the  flesh  of  sheep  or  hogs.  Fish,  we 
learn  from  Plutarch,  was  their  chief  diet.  They  were  em- 
ployed day  and  night  in  unremitting  devotion  round  the 
statue  of  their  deity.  In  several  parts  of  the  edifice  were 
termini,  or  small  square  columns,  surmounted  with  the  heads 
of  various  divinities.  Statues  also  were  discovered,  among 
which  was  an  image  of  Venus,  with  the  arms  and  neck  gilt. 
Paintings  of  architectural  subjects  were  also  discovered 
detached  from  the  walls ;  two  pictures  of  the  ceremonials 
then  in  use  among  the  priests  of  Isis,  as  well  as  a  repre- 
sentation of  Anubis,  with  the  head  of  a  dog ;  many  priests, 
with  palms  and  ears  of  corn,  and  one  holding  a  lamp  in  his 
hand ;  there  ^vas  also  the  representation  of  a  hippopotamus 
and  an  ibis,  the  lotus,  vari  us  birds,  and,  on  a  pilaster,  dol- 
phins. All  the  instruments  of  sacrifice,  made  of  bronze, 
were  obtained  during  the  excavations. 

The  modern  aqueduct,  executed  by  Dominico  Fontana, 
which  conveys  the  water  of  the  Sarnus  to  the  town  of  Torre 
del  Annunciata,  runs,  as  we  have  said,  through  the  court  of 
this  temple  ;  and  the  town  having  been  here  first  discovered, 
it  diverges,  and  is  arched  over,  in  consequence  of  the  ancient 
edifices  above  ground,  which  would  otherwise  have  been 
destroyed. 

Between  the  Temple  of  Isis  and  the  propyheum,  or 
entrance-portico  to  the  triangular  Forum,  is  an  oblong  build- 
ing, the  pui*pose  of  which  is  not  very  well  defined.  It  con- 
sists of  a  coui't,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  portico  of  the 
Doric  order,  still  pretty  perfect,  with  two  rooms  at  one  end, 
and  an  elevated  pulpitum,  for  a  speaker,  at  the  side.  The 
whole  building  is  seventy-nine  feet  long  by  fifty-seven  wide ; 
the  columns,  like  almost  all  found  at  Pomj)eii,  are  very  high 

There  is  no  record  of  these  skeletons  in  the  Journals  of  the  Excavations, 
and  we  are  ignorant  of  tlie  source  from  which  the  author  took  the  account  of 
them. 


144 


POMPEII. 


in  proportion  to  their  diameter  (1  :  4),  being  in  fact  eight 
and  a  half  diameters,  while  those  of  the  Parthenon  are  not 
quite  five  and  a  half.  The  intercolumniation  is  seven  feet 
six  inches,  and  the  architrave  was  of  course  supported  by 
beams.  In  the  centre  of  the  pillar  is  an  elevation,  placed  to 
relieve  the  abacus  of  the  superincumbent  weight,  which 
might  perhaps  have  broken  it.  There  are  three  entrances  : 
one  from  the  street ;  another,  which  has  been  much  used  and 
worn,  from  the  portico  surrounding  the  Greek  temple ;  and  a 
third  leading  directly  to  the  great  theatre. 

The  destination  of  this  building  has  proved  a  perfect 
riddle  to  antiquarians.  Some  have  given  it  the  name  of  the 
Curia  Isiaca,  and  consider  it  to  have  been  a  place  for  initiating 
persons  into  the  mysteries  of  Isis.  But  it  has  no  communi- 
cation with  the  neighbouring  temple  of  Isis,  and  its  whole 
construction  seems  too  open  and  public  for  such  a  purpose. 
Some  again  have  taken  it  to  be  a  school,  a  coui't  of  justice,  or 
a  market,  and  suj)port  this  opinion  by  instancing  the  pulpitum 
which  stands  opposite  the  entrance  from  the  Street  of  Isis. 
This  pulpitum  consists  of  a  sort  of  pediment  between  six  and 
seven  feet  high,  and  about  a  yard  square  at  top.  It  is  as- 
cended from  behind  by  a  flight  of  six  high  but  very  narrow 
stone  steps,  the  last  of  which  so  much  overtops  the  pulpitum, 
or  pediment,  that  it  might  serve  for  a  seat  to  anybody  who  had 
mounted  it.  Before  it  stands  another  smaller  pediment,  or 
basis,  somewhat  resembling  an  altar,  about  four  feet  high. 
Hence  some  writers  have  been  led  to  conclude  that  the  taller 
pediment  was  the  basis  for  the  statue  of  some  divinity,  to 
whom  sacrifice  was  offered  on  the  smaller  one,  or  altar. 
Overbeck  appears  to  incline  to  this  view,*  and  is,  at  all 
events,  decidedly  of  opinion  that  the  tall  pediment  was  sur- 
mounted by  a  statue.  In  support  of  this  view  he  refers  to 
the  Journal  of  the  Excavations,  where  under  date  of  August 
3rd,  1797,  we  are  told  that  a  pyramid  had  been  discovered  in 
the  building  which  we  are  discussing,  and  on  its  soglia  one 
foot  of  a  marble  statue  almost  entire,  and  a  small  part  of 
another. 

That  the  building  was  immediately  connected  with  the 
theatre  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  third  door 


*  B.  i.  S.  135. 


THE  REMAINING  TEMPLES  OF  POMPEII.  145 


(not  mentioned  by  Overbeck)  leads  nowhere  else.  Tlie 
following  inscription,  found  in  the  great  theatre,  seems  also 
to  point  the  same  way  : — 

M.  M.  HOLCONII.  RUFUS  ET.  CELER 
CRYPTAM.  TRIBUNaLIA  THEATRUM.  S.  P.* 

That  is  :  the  two  Holconii  erected  or  renovated  a  crypt, 
tribunals,  and  theatre,  at  their  own  expense.  Hence  some 
writers  have  been  led  to  call  the  whole  building  the  Tribunal, 
but  wo  are  not  aware  that  the  word  is  ever  so  applied. 
jMoreover,  the  inscription  does  not  say  a  tribunal,  but  tri- 
hunals,  in  the  plural ;  meaning,  apparently,  some  part  of  the 
theatre  so  called,  and  probably  the  seats  destined  for  the 
higher  magistrates.  It  seems  to  us  more  probable  that  the 
building  may  have  been  the  crypto-porticus  mentioned  in  the 
inscription,  which  would  have  formed  a  kind  of  lobby  and  re- 
tiring room  for  the  spectators  in  the  theatre ;  but  the  use  of 
the  pediment  in  question  we  are  unable  to.  explain. 

Between  this  building  and  the  circular  back  wall  of  the 
great  theatre  there  is  an  open  area,  where  stands  a  large 
square  mass  of  building,  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the 
foundation  for  a  cistern.    Its  real  purpose  is  doubtful. 

Bohind  the  scene  of  the  theatre  stands  a  large  rectangular 
enclosure,  one  hundred  and  eighty-three  feet  long  and  one 
hundred  and  forty-eight  wide,  surrounded  by  a  Doric  colon- 
nade, having  twenty-two  columns  on  the  longer  sides  and 
seventeen  on  the  shorter.  The  columns  are  constructed  of 
volcanic  tufa,  fluted  two-thirds  of  their  height,  covered  v/ith 
stucco  and  painted,  the  lower  part  red,  and  the  upper  alter- 
nately red  and  yellow,  except  the  two  centre  ones  of  the  east 
and  west  sides,  the  upper  parts  of  which  are  blue.  The 
surrounding  walls  were  also  covered  with  stucco,  painted  red 
below,  with  yellow  above.  On  the  northern  side  there  was 
a  direct  communication  with  both  theatres,  and  the  portico  of 
the  building  must  have  been  of  great  utility  to  the  spectators, 
affording  additional  shelter  from  the  rains  when  the  porticos 
of  the  great  theatre  might  have  been  crowded. 

At  the  time  when  this  building  was  excavated  (1766  and 
several  following  years)  it  was  supposed  to  be  a  barrack, 
and  obtained  the  name  of  the  Soldiers'  Quarters.  After- 

Mommsem,  Inscrr,  liegni.  Nea]p..  No.  2299. 

L 


146 


POMPEII. 


wards,  however,  from  its  situation  near  the  Forum  Trian- 
gulare,  it  came  to  be  considered  as  a  market-place,  and  was 
called  the  Forum  Nundinarium,  or  weekly  market.  But  the 
arguments  on  which  this  view  rests  are  far  from  being  con- 
vincing. That  it  was  a  sort  of  barrack  hardly  admits  of  a 
doubt,  both  from  the  nature  of  the  place  and  the  objects 
found  in  it ;  but  it  may  be  a  question  whether  it  was  intended 
for  the  soldiery  or  for  the  gladiators  exhibited  in  the  amphi- 
theatre. That  a  town  like  Pompeii  must  have  had  accommo- 
dation for  its  garrison  is  evident  enough,  and  the  building  in 
question  seems  excellently  adapted  for  such  a  purpose.  The 
arms  found  in  it,  however,  were  exclusively  of  the  kind  used 
by  gladiators  ;  not  a  single  soldier's  weapon  was  discovered, 
while  the  paintings  and  graffiti  had  also  reference  to  gladia- 
torial combats.  Among  these  graffiti^  traced  with  a  hard 
point  on  the  surface  of  the  ninth  column  of  the  east  side,  was 
the  representation  of  a  fighting  gladiator,  with  these  letters, 
XX  Valerius.  It  has  been  detached  from  the  wall  and 
carried  to  the  Musemn.  From  these  circumstances,  Garrucci 
designated  the  place  as  a  Indus  gladiatorius,  or  school  for 
gladiators,  in  which  view  he  has  been  followed  by  Overbeck.* 
That,  as  Breton  remarks,"!"  the  soldiers'  quarters  may  also 
have  occasionally  served  for  lodgings  for  the  gladiators,  and 
thus  have  combined  both  purposes,  is  not  improbable  in 
itself;  but  the  circumstance  before  mentioned,  that  no 
soldiers'  weapons  were  discovered  here,  seems  to  negative 
this  view. 

Eound  this  colonnade  were  many  small  rooms  or  cells, 
with  an  upper  story  over  them,  making  their  number  alto- 
gether sixty-six.  The  upper  ones  were  entered  from  a  gallery 
running  round  the  building,  to  which  there  was  an  ascent  by 
a  staircase.  These  rooms  could  not  well  have  accommodated 
more  than  two  men  in  each,  which  would  give  a  total  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty-two.  To  the  objection  that  it  would  be 
absurd  to  suppose  that  a  small  town  like  Pompeii  could  have 
supported  so  large  a  body  of  gladiators,  Overbeck  answers,! 
with  much  show  of  reason,  that  it  is  evident  from  its  amphi- 
theatre, capable  of  holding  12,000  or  15,000  spectators,  that 
Pompeii  must  have  been  the  central  place  of  the  whole 

*  Xuovo  Bullet ino  NapoUtano  ;  Overbeck,  B.  i.  S.  180. 
t  Pompeia,  p.  135,  %  B.  i.  S.  183  et  seq. 


THE  REMAINING  TEMPLES  OF  POMPEII. 


147 


neighbourhood  for  the  exhibition  of  gladiatorial  shows ;  and 
this  is  also  plain  from  the  quarrel  before  related  between  the 
Pompeians  and  the  JSTucerians  in  the  amphitheatre  of  the 
former.  We  also  learn,  from  inscrij)tions  found  in  Pompeii, 
that  thirty  or  thirty-five  pairs  of  gladiators,  or  sixty  to  seventy 
combatants  were  sometimes  exhibited  at  one  time.  We  know 
not  how  often  such  shows  were  given,  or  whether  a  larger 
number  of  gladiators  may  not  sometimes  have  been  engaged, 
nearly  half  of  whom  may  have  been  killed  in  the  arena, 
while  many  more  would  have  died  of  their  wounds. 

The  upper  story  of  this  building  has  been  restored  at  one 
of  the  angles,  upon  the  authority  of  various  indications  in 


Bronze  helmet  found  at  Pompeii. 


the  construction.  Here  was  found  a  bronze  helmet,  highly 
enriched  with  bas-reliefs  relating  to  the  principal  events  of 
the  capture  of  Troy.    Another  helmet  found  in  Pompeii  re- 


148 


POMPEII. 


presents  tlie  triumplis  of  Rome  in  the  midst  of  her  vanquished 
enemies  and  captives ;  this  one  has  a  vizor,  like  those  of  the 
lower  ages,  with  square  and  round  holes  to  see  through. 


Specimen  of  the  Greaves  supposed  to  have  been  worn  by  the  Gladiators. 


THE  KEMAINING  TEMPLES  OF  POMPEII.  149 

From  their  size  and  weight,  these  pieces  of  armour  have 
been  supposed  by  some  not  to  have  been  really  worn,  but 
only  intended  as  ornaments  for  trophies  ;  but  Sir  W.  Hamil- 
ton, who  was  present  at  their  excavation,  states  distinctly 
that  he  saw  part  of  the  linings  adhering  to  them,  now  fallen 
out,  and  has  no  doubt  but  that  they  were  meant  for  use,  and 
of  their  having  been  worn.  Greaves,  or  coverings  for  the 
shins,  made  of  bronze  and  highly  ornamented,  were  also  dis- 
covered here ;  on  these  were  sculptured  masks  alluding  to 
the  dramatic  representations.  The  most  remarkable  is  one 
with  a  triple  face,  representing  the  tragic,  comic,  and  satiric 
features. 

On  the  right  or  eastern  side  of  the  colonnade  is  a  small 
apartment  which  seems  to  have  served  as  a  prison  or  place 
of  punishment,  since  a  sort  of  iron  stocks,  with  holes  for  the 
legs,  was  found  in  it.  In  this  room  were  discovered  the 
skeletons  of  four  men,  who  might  probably  have  been  pri- 
ftoners,  but  their  legs  do  not  appear  to  have  been  enclosed  in 
the  irons,  as  some  writers  have  asserted.*  Many  other 
skeletons  were  found  in  different  parts  of  the  building,  and 
in  one  place  thirty-four  lay  close  together .t  May  not  these 
have  been  the  bodies  of  killed  or  badly  wounded  gladiators  ? 
All  the  cells  are  much  alike.  In  one  of  them  was  found  an 
instrument  used  apparently  as  an  oil  mill ;  in  another  was 
discovered  a  curious  brass  trumpet,  to  which  were  fitted  six 
ivory  flutes  mounted  with  bronze,  and  a  chain  for  hanging  it 
round  the  neck.J 

The  quarter  of  the  theatres  is  inferior  only  to  that  of  the 
Forum  in  the  variety  and  beauty  of  its  buildings.  As  the 
latter  was  especially  dedicated  to  business,  so  was  the  former 
to  pleasure  ;  and  we  here  find  ample  provision  made  for  the 
gratification  of  the  citizens,  not  only  by  dramatic  entertain- 
ments, but  by  spacious  porticos  and  large  areas,  which  pro- 
bably were  planted  and  adorned  with  flowers.  It  was  in 
such  places  as  these,  under  the  shade  of  colonnades,  or  in  the 
open  air,  as  the  weather  might  invite,  in  each  other's  com- 
pany, that  the  Italians  loved  to  take  the  mild  exercise  which 
suited  the  climate ;  for  when  they  engaged  in  more  violent 
exercise  it  was  in  athletic  games  or  similar  pursuits :  to 

♦  Pomp.  Ant,  Hist.  t.  i.  p.  197.  f  Ibid,  pp.  211,  212,  218. 

X  Breton,  p.  140. 


150 


POMPEII. 


take  a  walk,  in  the  Engiisli  acceptation  of  the  term,  was  a 
thing  that  no  one  ever  thought  o£  doing  for  pleasure.  The 
theatres  themselves,  which  will  be  described  in  a  separate 
chapter,  are  small  and  plain  compared  with  those  which  ex- 
isted at  Kome,  yet  they  bear  the  remains  of  considerable  mag- 
nificence, and  the  larger  at  least  would  be  considered  of  great 
size  in  any  modern  capital.  The  a^^proach  to  them  must  have 
combined  convenience  and  beauty  in  no  common  degree.  Just 
at  the  point  where  the  two  routes  from  the  Forum  unite, 
there  stands  a  propyleum,  or  vestibule,  of  eight  Ionic  columns 
in  Antis,  raised  upon  two  steps,  one  foot  nine  inches  in  dia- 
meter and  thirteen  feet  four  inches  high,  forming  one  of  the 
best  remaining  monuments  of  Pompeii.  In  the  mouldings  of 
the  entablature  an  artifice  has  been  employed  by  the  archi- 
tect to  produce  an  effect  as  if  black  lines  had  been  painted. 
This  is  done  by  cutting  deep  narrow  lines  under  the  project- 
ing mouldings,  allowing  of  no  reflection,  and  consequently 
producing  a  sharp  and  black  shadow.  In  front  of  one  of  the 
columns  is  a  fountain,  that  never- absent  article  of  Pompeian 
comfort,  supplied  with  water  through  a  mask  sculptured  in 
stone.  A  marble  basin  or  patera  is  also  attached  to  one  of 
the  columns  of  the  portico,  facing  you  as  you  enter,  which 
was  fed  by  pipes  carried  up  through  the  centre  of  the  column. 
In  this  vestibule  some  articles  of  gold  and  silver  were  found, 
together  with  an  emerald  ring.  This  leads  into  what  is  com- 
monly called  the  Triangular  Forum,  surrounded  by  an  exten- 
tensive  colonnade  of  the  Doric  order,  between  the  pillars  of 
which  were  iron  bars,  to  confine  the  crowd  within  them.  The 
greater,  or  eastern  side  of  the  triangle  is  about  450  feet 
in  length,  the  other  being  about  300  feet.  The  third,  or 
southern  side,  appears  to  have  had  no  portico,  and  was 
perhaps  lined  with  small  shops.  Within  this  ample  area, 
which  was  not  properly  a  forum,  but  a  sacred  enclosure,  are 
the  remains  of  an  edifice,  called,  from  its  style  of  architec- 
ture, the  Greek  temple,  otherwise  the  Temple  of  Hercules. 
This,  from  its  size,  arrangement,  and  style  of  art,  is  one  of 
the  most  important  buildings  in  Pompeii.  The  Count  de 
Clarac  *  dates  its  erection  about  eight  hundred  years  before 
the  Christian  era ;  and  if  this  remote  antiquity  can  be  main- 

*  See  Pompeii,  par  le  Comte  de  Clarac. 


THE  REMAINING  TEMPLES  OF  POMPEII. 


151 


tained,  it  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  specimens  existing  of 
Grecian  art,  and  must  have  been  erected  by  some  of  the 
earliest  Grecian  colonists.  It  is  in  a  very  dilapidated  state  ; 
the  few  indications  that  can  be  relied  on  seem  to  prove  that 
it  had  an  entire  peristyle  of  columns,  three  feet  ten  inches 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  diminishing  at  the  top  to  three  feet, 
and  about  four  and  a  half  diameters,  or  seventeen  feet  six 
inches  high,  comprising  seven  columns  on  the  north-west 
and  south-east  fronts,  and  eleven  on  each  of  the  sides.  The 
intercolumniations  are  one  diameter  and  two-ninths.  This 
is  one  of  the  few  instances  of  an  ancient  building  having  an 
uneven  number  of  columns  in  front,  and  consequently  an  odd 
one  in  the  centre ;  another  instance  occurs  in  the  basilica  of 
Psestum.  The  capitals  belong  to  the  Grecian  Doric ;  the 
abacus,  or  flat  stone  at  the  tup,  is  four  feet  eleven  inches 
square,  and  the  whole  capital  peculiar,  inasmuch  as  the  stone 
out  of  which  it  is  worked  includes  no  part  of  the  shaft.  Its 
great  depth  (one  foot  ten  inches  and  a  quarter)  and  bold  pro- 
jection indicate  a  very  ancient  character.*  The  masonry 
has  been  covered  with  fine  stucco.  The  cell  appears  to  have 
been  divided  into  several  compartments,  paved  with  mosaic, 
and  there  seem  to  have  been  two  entrances  from  the  portico, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  centre  column.  The  whole  building 
stands  upon  a  podium  or  basement,  raised  five  steps  above  the 
level  of  the  ground.  In  front  there  is  a  further  flight  of 
five  steps ;  these  are  entire,  but  much  worn.  The  total 
length  of  the  building,  including  the  podium,  but  not  the 
flight  of  steps,  is  about  120  feet;  its  breadth  about  70. 
Before  the  steps  is  a  square  enclosure,  supposed  to  have  been 
a  pen  to  contain  victims,  and  by  its  side  two  altars.  A  little 
further  off  stands  a  small  monopteral  building,  of  the  Doric 
order,  covering  a  puteal,  or  well,  from  which  the  water  re- 
quired in  the  temple  was  di^awn.  Otherwise  it  has  been 
called  a  bidental,  or  locus  fulminatus,  a  spot  where  a  thunder- 
bolt has  fallen.  Such  spots  were  held  in  especial  awe  by  the 
ancient  Romans,  and  set  apart  as  sacred  to  Pluto  and  infernal 
deities.  The  method  of  its  construction  will  suit  either  sup- 
position. Eight  columns  of  tufa,  one  foot  four  inches  in 
diameter,  supported  a  circular  epistyle  and  roof.    Under  this 


*  Cell,  p.  241. 


152 


POMPEII. 


is  a  structure  resembling  a  circular  perforated  altar,  such  as 
was  commonly  placed  for  security  round  the  mouth  of  wells. 
Exactly  the  same  covering  was  placed  over  a  bidental,  and  in 
either  case  it  was  alike  called  puteal. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  temple  was  erected  on  the 
site  of  a  still  older  pottery,  from  the  fragments  of  vases  and 
tiles  which  have  been  discovered  under  the  base.  The  spot 
is  elevated  considerably  above  the  level  of  the  plain,  which 
it  overlooks,  but  is  not  quite  so  high  as  the  Forum.  Near 
the  south-west  corner  of  the  building  is  an  exedra,  or  seat, 
placed  to  afford  the  worshippers  and  others  the  full  enjoy- 
ment of  the  magnificent  and  extensive  view.  The  seat  is 
semicircular,*  like  those  in  the  Street  of  Tombs.  From  it  a 
noble  prospect  presented  itself  to  the  eye,  embracing  Castel- 
lamare,  Yico,  Sorrento,  the  promontory  of  Minerva,  and  the 
island  of  Capri,  with  almost  the  entire  expanse  of  the  dark 
blue  bay  of  Naples.  The  city  wall  appears  to  have  bounded 
the  area  upon  this,  the  south  side,  so  that  the  portico,  which 
would  have  interrupted  the  view,  was  only  continued  along 
two  sides.  Parallel  to  the  eastern  portico  there  runs  a  long 
wall,  terminated  at  one  end  by  the  altars  already  mentioned 
and  at  the  other  by  a  pedestal,  inscribed 

M.  CLAUDio.  :m.f.  MAUCELLO.  PATKOXO 


153 


Female  Centaur  and  Bacchante. 


CHAPTEE  VI. 

BATHS  EXCAVATED  IN  THE  YEARS   1824  AND  1858. 

After  the  excavations  at  Pompeii  had  been  carried  on  to  a 
considerable  extent,  it  was  matter  of  surprise  that  no  public 
baths  were  discovered,  particularly  as  they  were  sure  almost 
to  be  placed  in  the  most  frequented  situation,  and  therefore 
probably  somewhere  close  to  the  Forum.  The  wonder  was 
increased  by  the  small  number  of  baths  found  in  private 
houses.  That  public  baths  existed,  was  long  ago  ascertained 
from  an  inscription  discovered  in  1749,  pur2)orting  that  one 
Januarius,  an  enfranchised  slave,  supplied  the  baths  of  Marcus 
Crassus  Frugi  with  water,  both  fresh  and  salt.  At  length  an 
excavation  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Forum  brought  to  light  a 
suite  of  public  baths,  admirably  arranged,  spacious,  highly 
decorated,  and  superior  to  any  even  in  the  most  considerable 
of  our  modern  cities.  They  are  fortunately  in  good  pre- 
servation, and  throw  much  light  on  what  the  ancients,  and 
especially  Vitruvius,  have  written  on  the  subject. 


154 


POMPEII. 


Inscription  in  the  Court  of  the  Baths. 

DEDICATIO.XE.  THERMARUM.  MUNERIS.  CN.EI. 
ALLEI.  NIGIDII.  MAII.  VENATIO.  ATHLETiE. 
SPARSIONES.  VELA.   ERUKT.  MAIO. 
PKINCIPI.  COLONIC.  FELICITER. 

Fac-simile  of  the  above  inscription. 

DIDJC\T/©l\rEi%r- 

^  ......  ^^^!^^r^T]n  x^[il'^-Tk■l■sFAJ\Slom^■YC^A£^s^y'r 

"  On  occasion  of  the  dedication  of  the  baths,  at  the  expense  of  CnaGus  Alleius 
Nigidius  Maius,  there  will  be  the  chase  of  wild  beasts,  athletic  contests, 
sprinkling  of  perfumes,  and  an  awning.  Pros})e)  ity  to  Maius,  chief  of  the 
colony." 

This  announcement  of  a  public  entertainment  is  written 
on  a  wall  of  the  court  of  the  baths,  to  the  right  hand  on 
entering.* 

The  provincial  towns,  imitating  the  example  of  Eome,  and 
equally  fond  of  all  sorts  of  theatrical  and  gladiatorial  exhibi- 
tions, of  which  we  shall  hereafter  speak  at  length  in  describ- 
ing the  various  theatres  of  Pompeii,  usually  solemnized  the 
completion  of  any  edifices  or  monuments  erected  for  the 
public  service  by  dedicating  them.  This  ceremony  was 
nothing  more  than  opening  or  exhibiting  the  building  to  the 
people  in  a  solemn  manner,  gratifying  them  at  the  same 
time  with  largesses  and  various  spectacles.  When  a  private 
man  had  erected  the  building,  he  himself  was  usually  the 
j)erson  who  dedicated  it.  When  undertaken  by  the  public 
order  and  at  the  public  cost,  the  citizens  deputed  some 
magistrate  or  rich  and  popular  person  to  perform  the  cere- 
mony. In  the  capital  vast  sums  were  expended  in  this 
manner ;  and  a  man  who  aspired  to  become  a  popular  leader 
could  scarcely  lay  out  his  money  to  better  interest  than  in 
courting  favour  by  the  prodigality  of  his  expenses  on  these  or 
similar  occasions.  It  appears,  then,  that  upon  the  comple- 
tion of  the  baths,  the  Pompeians  committed  the  dedication  to 
Cnseus  Alleius  Nigidius  Maius,  who  entertained  them  with  a 

*  Now  effaced. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


155 


sumptuous  spectacle.  There  were  combats  (venatio)  between 
wild  beasts,  or  between  beasts  and  men,  a  cruel  sport,  to 
which  the  Komans  were  jDassionately  addicted ;  athletic 
games  (athletce),  sprinkling  of  perfumes  {sparsiones),  and  it 
was  further  engaged  that  an  awning  should  be  raised  over  the 
amphitheatre.  The  convenience  of  such  a  covering  v/ill  be 
evident,  no  less  as  a  protection  against  sun  than  rain  under 
an  Italian  sky ;  the  merit  of  the  promise,  which  may  seem 
but  a  trifle,  will  be  understood  by  considering  the  difficulty 
of  stretching  a  covering  over  the  immense  area  of  an  ancient 
amphitheatre.  We  may  observe,  by  the  way,  that  representa- 
tions of  hunting  and  of  combats  between  wild  beasts  are 
common  subjects  of  the  paintings  of  Pompeii.  A  combat 
between  a  lion  and  a  horse,  and  another,  between  a  bear  and 
a  bull,  have  been  found  depicted  in  the  amphitheatre.  The 
velarium,  or  awning,  is  advertised  in  all  the  inscriptions  yet 
found  which  give  notice  of  public  games.  AthletaB  and  spar- 
siones  appear  in  no  other.  We  learn  from  Seneca  that  the 
perfumes  were  disseminated  by  being  mixed  with  boiling  water, 
and  then  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  amphitheatre,  so  that  the 
scents  rose  with  the  steam,  and  soon  became  diffused  through- 
out the  building.  There  is  some  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
completion  and  dedication  of  the  baths  preceded  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  city  but  a  short  time,  from  the  inscription  being 
found  perfect  on  the  wall  of  the  baths,  for  it  was  the  custom 
to  write  these  notices  in  the  most  public  places,  and  after  a 
very  short  season  they  were  covered  over  by  others,  as  one 
billsticker  delaces  the  labours  of  his  predecessors.  This  is 
abundantly  evident  even  in  the  present  ruined  state  of  the 
town,  especially  at  the  corners  of  the  principal  streets,  where 
it  is  easy  to  discover  one  inscription  painted  over  another. 
But  to  return  to  the  Baths.  They  occupy  almost  an  entire 
island,  forming  an  irregular  quadrangle ;  the  northern  front, 
facing  to  the  Street  of  the  Baths,  being  about  162  feet  in 
length,  the  southern  front  about  93  feet,  and  the  average 
depth  174  feet.  They  are  divided  into  three  separate  and 
distinct  compartments,  one  of  which  was  appropriated  to  the 
fireplaces  and  to  the  servants  of  the  establishment ;  the  other 
two  were  occupied  each  by  a  set  of  baths,  contiguous  to  each 
other,  similar  and  adapted  to  the  same  purposes,  and  supplied 
with  heat  and  water  from  the  same  furnace  and  from  the 


156 


POMPEII. 


same  reservoir.  Tt  is  conjectiu^ed  that  tlie  most  spacious  of 
them  was  for  the  use  of  the  men,  the  lesser  for  that  of  the 
women.  The  apartments  and  passages  are  paved  with  white 
marble  in  mosaic.  It  appears,  from  Yarro  and  Yitruvius, 
that  baths  for  men  and  women  were  originally  united,  as  well 
for  convenience  as  economy  of  fuel,  but  were  separated  after- 
wards for  the  preservation  of  morals,  and  had  no  communica- 
tion except  that  from  the  furnaces.  We  shall  call  these  the 
old  Baths  by  way  of  distinction,  and  because  they  were  first 
discovered ;  but  in  reality,  the  more  recently  discovered 
Stabian  Baths  may  probably  be  the  more  ancient. 

It  should  be  observed  here  that  the  old  Pompeian  tliermce- 
are  adapted  solely  to  the  original  purposes  of  a  bath,  namely, 
a  place  for  bathing  and  washing.  They  cannot  therefore 
for  a  moment  be  compared  to  the  baths  constructed  at  Eome 
during  the  period  of  the  empire,  of  which  such  magnificent 
remains  may  still  be  seen  at  the  Baths  of  Diocletian,  and 
especially  at  those  of  Caracalla.  In  these  vast  establishments 
the  bath  formed  only  a  part  of  the  entertainment  provided. 
There  were  also  spacious  porticoes  for  walking  and  conversing, 
halls  and  courts  for  athletic  games  and  gladiatorial  combats, 
apartments  for  the  lectures  and  recitations  of  philosophers, 
rhetoricians,  and  poets.  In  short,  they  formed  a  sort  of  vast 
public  club,  in  which  almost  every  species  of  amusement  was 
provided.  In  the  more  recently  discovered  baths,  called  the 
Therms  StabianaB,  which  will  be  described  further  on,  there 
is  indeed  a  large  quadrangular  court,  or  palaestra,  which  may 
have  served  for  gymnastic  exercises,  and  among  others  for  the 
game  of  ball,  as  appears  from  some  large  balls  of  stone  having 
been  found  in  it.  Yet  even  this  larger  establishment  makes 
but  a  very  slight  approach  to  the  magnificence  and  luxury  of 
a  Eoman  bath. 

The  piscina,  or  reservoir  of  the  old  Pompeian  baths,  is 
separated  from  the  baths  themselves  by  the  street  (W)  which 
opens  into  the  north-western  corner  of  the  Forum,  now 
called  Yicolo  delle  Terme.  The  pipes  which  communicated 
between  the  reservoir  and  the  bath  passed  over  an  arch  (^w) 
thro\\TL  across  the  street.  This  arch  was  perfect  when  the 
excavation  was  made;  now  only  the  shoulders  remain,  in 
which  the  pipes  above  mentioned  are  still  visible.  There 
Tvere  three  entrances  to  the  furnaces  which  heated  the  warm 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


157 


and  vapour  baths.  The  chief  one  opened  upon  a  court  (r)  of 
an  irregular  figure,  fit  for  containing  wood  and  other  neces- 
saries for  the  use  of  the  establishment,  covered  in  part  by  a 
roof,  the  rafters  of  which  rested  at  one  end  on  the  lateral 
walls  and  at  the  other  on  two  columns  constructed  with 
small  pieces  of  stone.     From  hence  a  very  small  staircase 


Plan  of  the  Baths. 


led  to  the  furnaces  and  to  the  upper  part  of  the  baths. 
Another  entrance  led  to  a  small  room  (Ji)  (prcefimiiim),  into 
which  projects  the  mouth  of  a  furnace  (i).  In  this  room 
were  the  attendants  on  the  furnace,  or  stokers  (  fornacarii), 
whose  duty  it  was  to  keep  up  the  fires.  Here  was  found  a 
quantity  of  pitch,  used  by  the  furnace-men  to  enliven  the 


158 


POMPEII. 


fires.  The  stairs  in  the  room  (h)  led  up  to  the  coppers.  The 
third  entrance  led  from  the  apodyterium  of  the  men's  baths 
by  means  of  a  corridor  (x).  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  there 
is  no  communication  between  these  furnaces  and  the  bath  of 
the  women,  which  was  heated  from  them.  The  furnace  was 
round,  and  had  in  the  lower  part  of  it  two  pipes,  which  trans- 
mitted hot  air  under  the  pavements  and  between  the  walls  of 
the  vapour-baths,  \ihich  were  built  hollow  for  that  purpose. 
Close  to  the  furnace,  at  the  distance  of  four  inches,  a  round 
vacant  space  still  remains,  in  which  was  placed  the  copper 
{caldarium)  for  boiling  w^ater ;  near  which,  with  the  same  in- 
terval between  them,  was  situated  the  copper  for  warm  water 
(tepidarium) ;  and  at  the  distance  of  two  feet  from  this  was 
the  receptacle  (Jc)  for  cold  water  (fiigidarium),  which  was 
square,  and  plastered  round  the  interior  like  the  piscina  or 
reservoir  before  mentioned.  A  constant  communication  was 
maintained  between  these  vessels,  so  that  as  fast  as  hot  water 
was  drawn  off  from  the  caldarium,  the  void  was  supplied  from 
the  tepidarium,  which  being  already  considerably  heated,  did 
but  slightly  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  hotter  boiler.  The 
ttipidarium,  in  its  turn,  was  supplied  from  the  piscina,  and 
that  from  the  aqueduct ;  so  that  the  heat  which  was  not  taken 
up  by  the  first  boiler  passed  on  to  the  second,  and  instead  of 
being  wasted,  did  its  office  in  preparing  the  contents  of  the 
second  for  the  higher  temperature  which  it  was  to  obtain  in 
tne  first.  It  is  but  lately  that  this  principle  has  been  intro- 
duced into  modern  furnaces,  but  its  use  in  reducing  the  con- 
sumj)tion  of  fuel  is  well  known.  It  is  necessary  to  apprize 
the  reader  that  the  terms  frigidarium,  tepidarium,  and 
caldarium,  are  applied  to  the  apartments  in  which  the  cold, 
tepid,  and  hot  baths  are  placed,  as  well  as  to  those  vessels  in 
which  the  operation  of  heating  the  water  is  carried  on.  The 
furnace  and  the  coppers  were  placed  between  the  men's  baths 
and  the  women's  baths,  as  near  as  possible  to  both,  to  avoid 
the  waste  of  heat  consequent  on  transmitting  the  heated  fluids 
through  a  length  of  pipe.  The  coppers  and  reservoir  were 
elevated  considerably  above  the  baths,  to  cause  the  water  to 
flow  more  rapidly  into  them. 

The  men's  baths  had  three  public  entrances  (a,  o,  and  p). 
Entering  at  the  principal  one  (2:^),  which  opens  to  the  Vicolo 
delle  Terme,  we  descend  three  steps  into  (jn)  the  vestibule, 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


159 


cortile,  or  portico  of  the  baths,  along  three  sides  of  which 
runs  a  portico  (ambulacrum).    The  seats  which  are  to  be 


seen  arranged  ronnd  the  walls  were  for  the  slaves  who  ac- 
companied their  masters  to  the  baths,  and  for  the  servants  of 


160 


POMPEII. 


the  baths  themselves,  to  T\'hom  also  the  apartment  (Z)  appears 
to  have  been  appropriated  which  opens  on  the  court  but 
extends  backward  from  it.  In  this  court  was  found  a  sword 
with  a  leather  sheath,  and  the  box  for  the  quadrans,  or 
piece  of  money  which  was  paid  by  each  visitor.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  the  sword  belonged  to  the  balneator  or  keeper  of 
the  Thermae.  The  door  (o)  which  opens  on  the  Street 
of  the  Forum  leads  also  into  the  same  vestibule.  By  means 
of  a  corridor  we  proceed  through  tlie  passage  (2)  into  the 
apodyterium^  or  undressing -room  (6),  vrhich  is  also  accessible 
by  the  corridor  (a)  from  the  street  now  called  the  Strada 
delle  Terme,  or  Street  of  the  Baths.  In  this  corridor  alone 
were  found  upwards  of  five  hundred  lamps,  and  upwards  of  a 
thousand  were  discovered  in  various  parts  of  the  baths  dur- 
ing the  excavations.  Of  these  the  best  were  selected,  and 
the  workmen  were  ordered  to  destroy  the  remainder.  The 
greater  number  were  of  terra-cotta  ;  some  had  an  impression 
of  the  graces  on  them,  and  others  the  figure  of  Harpocrates 
— both  of  inferior  execution.  The  .ceiling  of  this  passage  is 
decorated  with  stars.  The  apodyterium  has  three  seats, 
marked  ?>,  in  the  two  cuts  of  sections,  made  of  lava,  with  a 
step  to  place  the  feet  on.  Holes  (a)  still  remain  in  the  wall, 
in  which  pegs  were  fixed,  for  the  bathers  to  hang  up  their 
clothes.  This  chamber  is  stuccoed  from  the  cornice  to  the 
ground  ;  it  is  highly  finished,  and  coloured  yellow.  The 
cornice  is  of  large  dimensions,  and,  has  something  of  an 
Egyptian  character ;  below  it  is  carved  a  frieze,  composed  of 
lyres,  dolphins,  chimserse  and  vases  in  relief,  upon  a  red 


Ornameute^ frieze  in  ihe  Apodyterium. 


ground.  In  the  centre  of  the  end  of  the  room  is  a  very 
small  opening  or  recess  (c),  once  covered  with  a  piece  of 
glass :  in  this  recess,  as  is  plain  from  its  smokiness,  a  lamj) 
has  been  placed.  In  the  archivolt,  or  vaulted  roof,  imme- 
diately over  the  recess  is  a  window  marked  e  in  the  trans- 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


161 


verse  section,  two  feet  eight  inches  higli  and  three  feet  eight 
inches  broad,  closed  by  a  single  large  pane  of  cast  glass,  two- 
fifths  of  an  inch  thick,  fixed  into  the  wall,  and  ground  on  one 
side,  to  prevent  persons  on  the  roof  from  looking  into  the 
bath :  of  this  glass  many  fragments  were  found  in  the  ruins. 
This  is  an  evident  proof  that  glass  windows  were  in  use 
among  the  ancients.  Underneath  the  window  a  large  mask 
is  moulded  in  stucco,  with  curling  hair  and  a  most  venerable 
flowing  beard.  Water  is  sculptured  flowing  from  the  locks  of 
hair,  and  on  each  side  two  Tritons,  with  vases  on  their  shoul- 
ders, are  fighting ;  there  are  also  dolphins,  which  encircle  with 


Transverse  section  of  the  Apodyterinm. 

their  tails  the  figures  of  children  struggling  to  disengage 
themselves.  All  these  are  ornaments  apj)ropriatc  to  baths, 
and  of  a  whimsical  invention  to  symbolize  water  and  bathing. 
The  floor  is  paved  with  white  marble  worked  in  mosaic,  and 
the  ceiling  appears  to  have  been  divided  into  white  panels 
within  red  borders.  It  has  six  doors  :  one  leads  to  the  pr£e- 
furnium,  marked  h  in  the  plan  ;  another  into  the  small  room, 
perhaps  destined  for  a  wardrobe  ;  the  third,  by  a  narrow 
passage  (a)  to  the  Street  of  the  Baths ;  the  fourth  to  the  tepi- 
darium  (d) ;  the  fifth  to  the  frigidarium  (c) ;  and  the  sixth 
along  the  corridor  (2)  to  the  vestibule  or  portico  of  the  bath. 

The  frigidarium  (c),  or  cold  bath,  is  a  round  chamber, 
incrusted  with  yellow  stucco,  with  indications  here  and  there 
of  green,  with  a  ceiling  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone, 
which  ai)pcars  to  have  been  painted  blue.  Near  the  top  is  a 
window,  marked /  in  the  section,  by  which  it  was  lighted.  In 

BI 


162 


POMPEII. 


tlie  cornice,  which  is  coloured  red,  is  modelled  in  stncco  a 
chariot  race  of  Cupids,  preceded  by  Cupids  on  horseback  and 
on  foot. 


Chariot  race  of  Cupids  in  the  Frigidarium. 


The  plinth  or  base  of  the  wall  is  entirely  of  marble.  The 
entrance  is  by  the  undressing-room.  There  are  four  niches 
{(jg)^  disposed  at  equal  distances,  painted  red  above  and  blue 
below.  In  these  niches  (scholae)  were  seats  for  the  conve- 
nience of  the  bathers.  The  basin  (alveus)  is  twelve  feet  ten 
inches  in  diameter  and  not  much  more  than  a  yard  deep,  and  is 
entirely  lined  with  white  marble.  Two  marble  steps  facili- 
tate the  descent  into  it,  and  at  the  bottom  is  a  sort  of  cushion 
(pulvinus),  also  of  marble,  to  enable  those  who  bathed  to  sit 
down.  The  water  ran  into  this  bath  in  a  large  stream, 
through  a  spout  or  lip  of  bronze  four  inches  wide,  placed  in 
the  wall  at  the  height  of  three  feet  seven  inches  from  the 
edge  of  the  basin.  At  the  bottom  is  a  small  outlet  for  the 
purpose  of  emptying  and  cleansing  it,  and  in  the  rim  there 


The  tepidarium  (d),  or  warm  cliamber,  was  so  called  from 
a  warm,  but  soft  and  mild  temperature,  whicli  prepared  the 


164  POMPEII. 

bodies  of  tlie  bathers  for  the  more  intense  heat  which  they 
were  to  undergo  in  the  vapour  and  hot  baths  ;  and,  vice 


versa,  softened  the  trans *tion  from  the  hot  bath  to  the  ex- 
ternal air.    The  wall  is  divided  into  a  number  of  niches  or 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


165 


compartments  by  Telamones,*  two  feet  liigli,  in  liigh  relief, 
and  supporting  a  rich  cornice.  These  are  male,  as  Carya- 
tides are  female  statues  placed  to  j)erform  the  office  of 
pillars.  By  the  Greeks  they  were  named  Atlantes,  from  the 
well-known  fable  of  Atlas  supporting  the  heavens.  Here 
they  are  made  of  terra-cotta,  or  baked  clay,  incrusted  with 
the  finest  marble  stucco.  Their  only  covering  is  a  girdle 
round  the  loins ;  they  have  been  painted  flesh-colour,  with 
black  hair  and  beards  :  the  moulding  of  the  pedestal  and  the 
baskets  on  their  heads  were  in  imitation  of  gold ;  and  the 
pedestal  itself,  as  well  as  the  wall  behind  them  and  the 
niches  for  the  reception  of  the  clothes  of  the  bathers,  w^ere 
coloured  to  resemble  red  porphyry.  Six  of  these  niches 
are  closed  up  without  any  apparent  reason. 

The  ceiling  is  worked  in  stucco,  in  h)w  relief,  with  scat- 
tered figures  and  ornaments  of  little  flying  genii,  delicately 
relieved  on  medallions,  with  foliage  carved  round  them. 
The  ground  is  painted,  sometimes  red  and  sometimes  blue. 
The  room  was  lighted  by  a  window  two  feet  six  inches  high 
and  three  feet  wide,  in  tlie  bronze  frame  of  which  were  found 
set  four  very  beautiful  panes  of  glass  fastened  by  small  nuts 
and  screws,  very  ingeniously  contrived,  with  a  view  to  re- 
move the  glass  at  pleasure.  In  this  room  was  found  a  brazier, 
seven  feet  long  and  two  feet  six  inches  broad,  made  entirely 
of  bronze,  with  the  exception  of  an  iron  lining.    The  two 


Brazier  in  the  Tepidarium. 


front  legs  are  winged  sphinxes,  terminating  in  lions'  paws  ; 
the  two  other  legs  are  plain,  being  intended  to  stand  against 

*  So  called  from  the  Greek  rKyjuai,  to  endure.  The  etymology  of  Atlas  is 
the  same. 


166 


POMPEII. 


the  wall.  The  bottom  is  formed  with  bronze  bars,  on  which 
are  laid  bricks  supporting  pumice-stones  for  the  reception  of 
charcoal.  There  is  a  sort  of  false  battlement  worked  on  the 
rim,  and  in  the  middle  a  cow  is  to  be  seen  in  high  relief. 
Three  bronze  benches  also  w^ere  found,  alike  in  form  and 
pattern.  They  are  one  foot  four  inches  high,  one  foot  in 
width,  and  about  six  feet  long,  supported  by  four  legs,  termi- 
nating in  the  cloven  hoofs  of  a  cow,  and  ornamented  at  the 
upper  ends  with  the  heads  of  the  same  animal.    Upon  the 


seat  is  inscribed,  M.  NIGIDIUS.  VACCULA.  P.  S.  Varro, 
in  his  book  upon  rural  affairs,  tells  us  that  many  of  the  sur- 
names of  the  Eoman  families  had  their  origin  in  pastoral 
life,  and  especially  are  derived  from  the  animals  to  whose 
breeding  they  paid  most  attention.  As,  for  instance,  the 
Porcii  took  their  name  from  their  occupation  as  swineherds ; 
the  Ovini  from  their  care  of  sheep ;  the  Caprilli,  of  goats  ; 
the  Equarii,  of  horses ;  the  Tauri,  of  bulls,  &c.  We  may 
conclude,  therefore,  that  the  family  of  this  Marcus  Yaccula 
were  originally  cowkeepers,  and  that  the  figures  of  cows  so 
plentifully  impressed  on  all  the  articles  which  he  presented 
to  the  baths  are  a  sort  of  canting  arms,  to  borrow  an  exj)res- 
sion  from  heraldry,  as  in  Eome  the  family  Toria  caused  a 
bull  to  be  stamped  on  their  money. 

A  doorway  led  from  the  tepidarium  into  the  caldarium,  or 
vapour-bath.  It  had  on  one  side  the  laconicum,  containing 
the  vase  (c)  called  labrum.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  room 
was  the  hot  bath  (g)  called  lavacrum.  Here  it  is  necessary  to 
refer  to  the  words  of  Yitruvius  as  explanatory  of  the  structure 
of  the  apartments  (cap.  xi.  lib.  v.).  '*  Here  should  be  placed 
the  vaulted  sweating-room;  twice  the  length  of  its  width,  which 
should  have  at  each  extremity,  on  one  end  the  laconicum^  made 
as  described  above,  on  the  other  end  the  hot  bath."  This 


One  of  the  three  bronze  seats  found  in  the  Tepidarium. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


167 


apartment  is  exactly  as  described,  twice  the  length  of  its  width, 
exclusively  of  the  laconicum*  at  one  end  and  the  hot  bath  at 
the  other.    The  pavement  and  walls  of  the  whole  were  hol- 


*  The  Laconicum  was  so  named  after  the  Laceda}monians,  who,  instead  of 
the  warm  bath,  used  a  dry  sweating  bath,  heated  with  warm  air  by  means  of  a 
stove.    Strabo,  iii.  p.  413  ;  Dion.  Cass.  liii.  p.  515,  seq. 


168 


POMPEII. 


lowed  to  admit  tlie  heat.  Vitruvius  never  mentions  the  la- 
conicum  as  being  separated  from  the  vapour-bath ;  it  may 
therefore  be  presumed  to  have  been  always  connected  with 
it  in  his  time,  although  in  the  ThermaB  constructed  by  the 
later  emperors  it  appears  always  to  have  formed  a  separate 
apartment.  In  the  baths  of  Pompeii  they  are  united,  and 
adjoin  the  tepidarium,  exactly  agreeing  with  the  descriptions 
of  Vitruvius.  The  laconicum  is  a  large  semicircular  niche, 
seven  feet  wide  and  three  feet  six  inches  deep,  in  the  middle 
of  which  was  placed  a  vase  or  labrum.  The  ceiling  was 
formed  by  a  quarter  of  a  sphere ;  it  had  on  one  side  a  circular 
opening  (a),  one  foot  six  inches  in  diameter,  over  which,  ac- 
cording to  Vitruvius,  a  shield  of  bronze  was  suspended, 
which,  by  means  of  a  chain  attached  to  it,  could  be  drawn 
over  or  drawn  aside  from  the  aperture,  and  thus  regulated 
the  temperature  of  the  bath.  Where  the  ceiling  of  the  la- 
conicum joined  the  ceiling  of  the  vapour-bath,  there  was, 
immediately  over  the  centre  of  the  vase  or  labrum,  a  window 
((/),  three  feet  five  inches  wide ;  and  there  were  two  square 
lateral  windows  in  the  ceiling  of  the  vapour-bath,  one  foot 
four  inches  wide  and  one  foot  high,  from  which  the  light  fell 
perpendicularly  on  the  labrum,  as  recommended  by  Vitruvius, 
"  that  the  shadows  of  those  who  surrounded  it  might  not  be 
thrown  upon  the  vessel." 

The  labrum  (c)  was  a  great  basin  or  round  vase  of  white 
marble,  rather  more  than  five  feet  in  diameter,  into  which 
the  hot  water  bubbled  up  through  a  pipe  (h)  in  its  centre,  and 
served  for  the  partial  ablutions  of  those  who  took  the  vapour- 
bath.  It  was  raised  about  three  feet  six  inches  above  the 
level  of  the  pavement,  on  a  round  base  built  of  small  pieces 
of  stone  or  lava,  stuccoed  and  coloured  red,  five  feet  six 
inches  in  diameter,  and  has  within  it  a  bronze  inscription, 
which  runs  thus  : — 

GN.EO.  MELISSiEO.  GN^J.  FILTO.  AFRO.  MARCO.  STAIO.  MARCI. 
FILIO.  RUFO.  DUUMVIRIS.  ITERUM.  lURE.  DICUXDO.  LABRUM.  EX 
DECURIOXUM  DECRETO.  EX.  PECUXIA.  PUBLICA.  FACIENDUM. 
CURARUNT.  CONSTAT.  SESTERTIUM.  D.C.C.L. 

Eelating  that  "  Cngeus  Melissaeus  Aper,  son  of  Cnaeus  Aper, 
Marcus  Stains  Eufus,  son  of  M.  Eufus,  duumvirs  of  justice 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


169 


for  the  second  time,  caused  the  labrum  to  be  made  at  the 
public  expense,  by  order  of  the  Decurions.  It  cost  750 
sesterces  "  (about  6/.)."^  There  is  in  the  Vatican  a  magnificent 
porphyry  labrum  found  in  one  of  the  imperial  baths ;  and 
Baccius,  a  great  modern  authority  on  baths,  speaks  of  labra 
made  of  glass. 

This  apartment,  like  the  others,  is  well  stuccoed  and 
painted  yellow  ;  a  cornice,  highly  enriched  with  stucco  orna- 
ments, is  supported  by  fluted  pilasters  placed  at  irregular 
intervals.  These  are  red,  as  is  also  the  cornice  and  ceiling 
of  the  laconicum,  which  is  worked  in  stucco  mth  little  figures 
of  boys  and  animals.    The  ceiling  of  the  room  itself  was 


Part  of  the  ceiling  of  the  Caldarium. 


entirely  carved  with  transverse  fluting,  like  that  of  enriched 
columns,  a  beautiful  ornament,  and  one  but  little  used  for 
this  purpose  ;  no  other  instance  occurring  except  in  certain 
ruins  of  villas  on  the  shores  of  Castellone,  the  ancient  Formiae. 
The  hot  bath  (/on  the  plan)  occupied  the  whole  end  of  the 
room  opposite  to  the  laconicum  and  next  to  the  furnace.  It 
was  four  feet  four  inches  wide,  twelve  feet  long,  and  one  foot 
eight  inches  deep,  constructed  entirely  of  marble,  with  only 
one  pipe  to  introduce  the  water,  and  was  elevated  two  steps 
above  the  floor ;  while  a  single  step  led  down  into  the  bath 
itself,  forming  a  continuous  bench  round  it  for  the  convenience 
of  the  bathers. 

The  Eomans,  who,  according  to  Vitruvius,  called  their 
vapour-baths  ealdaria,  or  sudationes  concameratse,  constructed 


*  Museum  Borbonicuirij  vol.  ii. 


170 


POMPEII. 


tliem  with  suspended  or  hollow  floors  and  with  hollow  walls* 
(cl)  communicating  with  the  furnace,  that  the  smoke  and  hot 
air  might  be  spread  over  a  large  surface  and  readily  raise 
them  to  the  required  warmth.  The  temperature  was  regulated 
by  the  clypeus  or  bronze  shield  abeady  described. 

In  the  Pompeian  bath  the  hollow  floors  are  thus  constructed. 
Upon  a  floor  of  ccxuent  made  of  lime  and  pounded  bricks 
were  built  small  brick  pillars  (o),  nine  inches  square  and  one 
foot  seven  inches  high,  supporting  strong  tiles  fifteen  inches 
square.  The  pavement  was  laid  on  these  and  incrusted  with 
mosaic.  The  hollow  walls,  the  void  spaces  of  which  com- 
municated with  the  vacuum  of  the  suspended  pavement,  were 
constructed  in  the  following  manner.  Upon  the  walls,  solidly 
stuccoed,  large  square  tiles  w^ere  fastened  by  means  of  iron 
cramps.  They  were  made  in  a  curious  manner.  While  the 
clay  was  moist  some  circular  instrument  was  pushed  through 
it  so  as  to  make  a  hole,  at  the  same  time  forcing  out  the  clay 
and  making  a  projection  or  pipe  about  three  inches  long  on 
the  inside  of  the  tile.  These  being  made  at  the  four  corners, 
iron  clamps  passed  through  them  and  fastened  them  to  the 
wall,  the  interval  being  regulated  by  the  length  of  the  pro- 
jections. The  sides  of  the  apartments  being  thus  formed, 
were  afterwards  carefully  stuccoed  and  painted .  The  vacancy 
in  the  walls  of  the  Pompeian  baths  reaches  as  high  as  the 
top  of  the  cornice,  but  the  ceilings  are  not  hollow,  as  in  the 
baths  which  Vitruvius  described,  and  which  he  distinguishes 


Ornament  of  the  Tepidarium. 


for  that  reason  by  the  name  of  concameratae.  The  following 
woodcuts  will  convey  an  idea  of  the  style  of  ornament  which 

*  The  Italians  call  such  a  floor  vespajo,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  wasp's 
nest. 


DESCBIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


171 


is  lavished  upon  the  ceilings  of  the  apartments  which  we 
have  just  described.    The  first  is  a  winged  child  or  genius, 


4 


riding  on  one  sea-horse  and  accompanied  by  another,  preceded 
by  a  similar  child  guiding  two  dolphins.  This  occupies  the 
centre  of  the  ceiling  of  the  tepidarium.    Other  ornaments 


172 


POMPEII. 


are  dispersed  around  it,  from  which  we  have  selected  some 
of  those  that  are  best  preserved.  The  design  is  generally 
better  than  the  workmanship,  for  they  have  not  been  care- 
fully j&nished,  on  account,  perhaps,  of  the  height  at  which 
they  were  to  be  placed.  A  curious  piece  of  economy  is  visible 


Ornaments  of  the  Tepidarium. 


in  these  decorations.  Those  low  down  on  the  walls  are 
executed  in  relief,  but  the  higher  ones  are  painted  as  it  were 
in  a  very  liquid  stucco  ;  so  that  the  child  who  sounds  a  cymbal 
(see  the  cut  above)  in  one  of  the  medallions,  has  one  leg, 
one  arm,  and  the  head  of  stucco,  while  the  wings,  the  other 
leg,  and  the  cymbal,  which,  if  also  executed  in  stucco,  would 
have  been  in  lower  relief,  are  either  laid  on  with  a  brush  in 
this  liquid  stucco,  or  left  white  when  the  ground  w^as  painted. 
It  is  so  done,  that  at  a  certain  distance,  and  to  one  who  does 
not  consider  it  with  nicety,  the  whole  appears  to  be  relieved. 
The  same  is  to  be  observed  in  the  bow,  which  has  the  two 
ends  formed  of  goats'  heads. 

The  women's  bath  resembles  very  much  that  of  the  men, 
and  differs  only  in  being  smaller  and  less  ornamented.    It  is 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


173 


heated,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  by  the  same  fire,  and 
supplied  with  water  from  the  same  boilers.  Near  the  entrance 
is  an  inscription  painted  in  red  letters.  All  the  rooms  yet 
retain  in  perfection  their  vaulted  roofs.  In  the  vestibule  (v) 
are  seats  similar  to  those  which  have  been  described  in  the 
men's  baths  as  appropriated  to  slaves  or  servants  of  the  esta- 
blishment. The  robing-room  (t)  contains  a  cold  bath  ;  it  is 
painted  with  red  and  yellow  pilasters  alternating  with  one 
another  on  a  blue  or  black  ground,  and  has  a  light  cornice 
of  white  stucco  and  a  white  mosaic  pavement  with  a  narrow 
black  border.  There  is  accommodation  for  ten  persons  to 
undress  at  the  same  time.  The  cold  bath  is  much  damaged,  the 
wall  only  remaining  of  the  alveus,  which  is  square,  the  whole 
incrustation  of  marble  being  destroyed.  From  this  room  we 
pass  into  the  tepidarium  (s),  about  twenty  feet  square,  painted 
yellow  with  red  pilasters,  lighted  by  a  small  window  far 
from  the  ground.  This  apartment  communicates  with  the 
warm  bath  (w),  which,  like  the  men's,  is  heated  by  flues 
formed  in  the  floors  and  walls.  There  are  in  this  room 
paintings  of  grotesque  design  uj)on  a  yellow  ground,  but 
they  are  much  damaged  and  scarcely  visible.  The  pavement 
is  of  white  marble  laid  in  mosaic.  The  room  (w)  in  its 
general  arrangement  resembles  the  hot  bath  of  the  men ;  it 
has  a  labrum  (y)  in  the  laconicum,  and  a  hot  bath  contiguous 
to  the  furnace,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  plan.  The  hollow 
pavement  and  the  flues  in  the  walls  are  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed ;  and  of  the  labrum,  the  foot,  in  the  middle  of  which 
was  a  piece  of  the  leaden  conduit  that  introduced  the  water, 
alone  remains.  On  the  right  of  the  entrance  into  these 
women's  baths  is  a  wall  of  stone  of  great  thickness  and  in 
a  good  style  of  masonry. 

These  baths  are  so  well  arranged,  with  so  prudent  an 
economy  of  room  and  convenient  distribution  of  their  parts, 
and  are  adorned  with  such  appropriate  elegance,  as  to  show 
clearly  the  intellect  and  resources  of  an  excellent  architect. 
At  the  same  time  some  errors  of  the  grossest  kind  have  been 
committed,  such  as  would  be  inexcusable  in  the  most  igno- 
rant workman ;  as,  for  instance,  the  symmetry  of  parts  has 
been  neglected  where  the  parts  correspond ;  a  pilaster  is  cut 
off  by  a  door  which  passes  through  the  middle  of  it ;  and 
other  mistakes  occur  which  might  have  been  avoided  without 


174 


POMPEII. 


difficulty.  This  strange  mixture  of  good  and  bad  taste,  of 
skill  and  carelessness,  is  not  very  easily  accounted  for,  but 
it  is  of  constant  recurrence  in  Pompeii. 

Yitruvius  recommends  the  selecting  a  situation  for  baths 
defended  from  the  north  and  north-west  winds,  and  forming 
windows  opposite  the  south,  or  if  the  nature  of  the  ground 
would  not  permit  this,  at  least  towards  the  south,  because 
the  hours  of  bathing  used  by  the  ancients  being  from  after 
midday  till  evening,  those  who  bathed  could,  by  those  win- 
dows, have  the  advantage  of  the  rays  and  of  the  heat  of  the 
declining  sun.  For  this  reason  the  Pompeian  baths  hitherto 
described  have  the  greater  part  of  their  windows  turned  to 
the  south,  and  are  constructed  in  a  low  part  of  the  city,  where 
the  adjoining  buildings  served  as  a  protection  to  them  from 
the  inconvenience  of  the  north-west  winds. 

From  the  smallness  of  the  baths  just  described,  it  had  long 
been  conjectured  that  they  could  not  have  been  the  only 
public  establishment  of  the  kind  in  Pompeii ;  and  this  con- 
jectm^e  was  confirmed  by  the  discovery,  in  1854  and  four 
following  years,  of  other  ThermaB  on  a  larger  scale  than  the 
former  ones,  and  more  elegantly  decorated.  They  are 
situated  in  the  Street  of  Holconius,  marked  1  on  the  plan, 
and  embrace  the  whole  northern  side  of  it,  from  the  small 
street  called  the  Yia  del  Lupanare  on  the  west  (3),  to 
the  Strada  Stabiana  on  the  east  (2).  They  are  thus  com- 
pletely isolated  on  their  southern,  eastern,  and  western  sides, 
in  each  of  which  there  are  entrances,  while  on  the  north 
they  are  bounded  by  private  houses.  In  order  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  previously  excavated  baths,  they 
are  sometimes  called  from  their  size  the  Great  Thermae, 
and  sometimes,  from  one  of  their  sides  being  in  the  street 
leading  to  the  Gate  of  Stabise,  the  Thermae  Stabianae. 

We  learn  some  particulars  about  these  baths  fi-om  an  in- 
scription on  a  slab  of  travertine,  found  in  May,  1857,  in  a 
small  room  on  their  northern  side,  and  now  preserved 
in  the  National  Museum.*  This  inscription  records,  that 
C.  Yulius  and  P.  Aninius,  duumvirs  for  administering  jus- 
tice, caused  a  Laconicum  and  Destrictarium  to  be  made,  and 
the  Portico  and  Palaestra  to  be  repaired,  in  compliance  with 


*  Pomp,  Ant.  Hist,,  vol.  ii.  p.  647,  seq. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


175 


a  decree  of  the  Decurions,  with  the  money  which  they  were 
to  lay  out  according  to  law,  either  on  some  public  monu- 
ment, or  in  the  exhibition  of  games,  and  that  the  same 
duumvirs  inspected  and  approved  the  works  after  their  com- 
pletion.   The  original  runs  as  follows  : — 

C.  VVLIUS.  C.  F.  P.  ANINIVS.  C.  F.  II.  V.  I.  D. 

LACONICUM.  ET.  DESTRICTARIUM. 
FACIUND.  ET.  PORTICUS.  ET.  PALJ^.STR. 
REFICIUNDA.  LOCARUNT.  EX.  D.  D.  EX. 
EA.  PEQVNIA.  QUOD.  EOS.  E.  LEGE. 
IN.  LUDOS.  AVT.  IN.  MONUMEXTO. 
CONSUMERE.  OPORTUIT.  FACIVN. 
COERARUXT.  EIDEMQUE.  PROBARU. 


Plan  of  Stabian  Baths. 


From  this  inscription  we  may  learn  that  these  alterations 
and  improvements  had  been  completed  before  the  destruction 
of  Pompeii ;  and  indeed,  antiquarians  infer  from  its  style 
and  from  the  character  of  the  letters,  that  it  must  be  about  a 


17(5 


POMPEIT. 


century  and  a  lialf  older  than  that  event,  and  cannot  there- 
fore have  any  reference  to  the  repair  of  damage  occasioned 
by  the  earthquake  of  a.d.  63.*  If  this  be  so,  and  if  the  in- 
scription is  to  be  referred  to  about  the  year  B.C.  70,  then  we 
must  assign  a  tolerably  ancient  date  to  these  baths,  since  the 
circumstance  of  the  Portico  and  PalsGstra  requiring  repair, 
shows  that  the  ThermsG  must  have  been  in  existence  long 
previously  to  that  date.  We  are  told  indeed  that  Palaestrae 
did  not  become  common  in  Italy  till  the  reign  of  Augustus ; 
but  this,  as  Overbeck  remarks,  does  not  exclude  their 
existence  absolutely  and  altogether,  and  especially  in  towns 
of  Greek  origin.  We  may  rather  infer  that  these  Thermae, 
like  the  Temple  of  Hercules  in  the  Triangular  Forum, 
belonged  to  the  ancient  and  more  Grecian  portion  of  Pom- 
peii ;  and  on  the  whole  it  seems  probable  that  they  were 
anterior  in  date  to  the  baths  previously  discovered  and 
already  described. 

The  principal  entrance  to  the  Thermae  Stabianae  is  in  the 
Street  of  Holconius.  After  passing  the  prothyrum,  or  vesti- 
bule (7),  which  has  nothing  requiring  notice,  the  visitor  finds 
himself  in  a  large  quadrangular  court  (12,  and  10  at  the 
angles),  growing  however  gradually  rather  narrower  towards 
the  further  end,  from  the  inward  inclination  of  the  western 
side.  On  its  southern  and  eastern,  and  partly  on  its 
northern  side,  this  court  is  surrounded  with  a  portico 
(9)  about  nine  feet  broad,  supported  by  pillars  of  no 
regular  order,  but  resembling  the  Doric  more  than  any 
other.  They  are  covered  with  stucco,  having  their  lower 
third  painted  red  and  the  rest  white.  They  are  not 
actually  fluted,  but  have  stripes  resembling  channels.  Of 
these  columns  there  are  nineteen  on  the  right,  or  eastern 
side,  seven  on  the  south,  besides  one  let  into  the  wall,  and  on 
the  north  only  one.  Their  capitals,  ornamented  with  leaves, 
supported  a  cornice  admirably  wrought  in  stucco,  a  small 
portion  of  which,  preserved  almost  in  its  original  state,  will 
convey  to  the  spectator  an  idea  of  what  it  must  have  been 
when  perfect.  The  walls  within  the  portico  are  painted  in 
red  compartments  surrounded  with  yellow  borders.  The 
figures  (11)  round  the  outside  of  the  portico  mark  depressions 


*  Overbeck,  Pompeii,  ^c,  b.  i.  s.  205. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


177 


and  holes  in  wliicli  the  dirt  was  collected,  and  by  whicli  the 
rainwater  from  the  roof  ran  off. 

The  northern  side  of  the  portico,  towards  the  left,  forms  a 
sort  of  crypto-porticus,  with  two  rooms  or  loggie  looking  upon 
the  palaestra.  The  first  of  these  rooms  (19)  can  be  entered 
only  from  the  portico,  but  has  a  large  window  towards  the 
palaestra  and  another  smaller  one  looking  into  the  adjoining- 
apartment.  In  this  room  was  found  a  handsome  bronze 
brazier,  very  m^uch  resembling  that  found  in  the  tepidarium 
of  the  other  Thermae,  and  having  like  it  the  inscription 
M.  NIGIDIUS,  P.S.,  with  the  image  of  a  little  cow,  standing 
apparently  for  the  surname  Yaccula.  This  brazier,  however, 
affords  no  clue  as  to  the  destination  of  the  room  in  which  it 
was  found.  It  was  evidently  not  in  its  proper  place,  since 
a  small  room  with  two  large  open  windows  was  quite  unfitted 
to  be  warmed  by  such  an  apparatus.*  The  next  apartment 
to  this  is  a  loggia  (18)  open  to  the  palaestra,  from  which  it  is 
entered  by  a  step.  It  was  probably  intended  for  spectators 
of  the  games.  The  walls  are  white,  and  the  floor  paved  with 
opis  Signinum. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  large  oj)en  court  formed  the 
palaestra  mentioned  in  the  inscription.  That  it  was  destined 
for  athletic  sports  and  exercises  is  evident,  as  well  from  the 
size  of  its  area  as  from  the  discovery  in  it  of  two  large  stone 
spheres  or  balls.  It  is  about  44  yards  long  and  27  broad  in 
the  middle.  It  has  no  pavement,  but  a  floor  of  hard  or 
beaten  earth.  Along  its  west  side,  a  little  raised  above  the 
level  of  the  ground,  runs  a  strip  of  tufo  pavement,  about  a 
yard  and  a  half  broad.  On  this  were  found  the  large  and 
heavy  stone  balls  or  globes  just  mentioned,  which  were 
probably  intended  to  be  rolled  along  it  in  some  game  of 
strength  or  skill. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  describe  the  buildings  which  sur- 
round this  court  or  palaestra.  The  south  side,  by  which  we 
have  entered,  has  little  else  behind  the  portico  but  shops 
facing  to  the  Street  of  Holconius  (marked  in  the  plan 
4,  5,  and  6),  and  will  not  require  any  particular  descrip- 
tion. The  left,  or  western  side,  is  almost  entirely  engrossed 
by  a  large  natatio,  or  swimming  bath  (13),  with  its  appur- 

*  See  Oveibeck,  B.  i.  S.  213.  Cf.  Pomp.  Antiq,  Hist.  t.  ii.  p.  050. 

N 


178 


POIMPEII. 


tenances.  The  oblong  basin  is  about  50  feet  long  and  half 
tliat  breadth.  It  has  steps  to  descend  into  it  on  all  its  sides 
except  the  further  one,  vv^here  there  are  only  a  fe^v,  intended 
apparently  for  seats.  It  is  about  six  and  a  half  feet  deep, 
and  open  to  the  air.  Anciently  it  was  lined  with  slabs  of 
white  marble,  of  which  only  a  few  now  remain.  At  each 
end  of  the  piscina  or  bath  are  square  apartments  (14,  15), 
exactly  similar  in  arrangement  and  decoration.  Both  are 
entered  from  the  palaestra  by  a  large  arched  doorway,  while 
similar  doorways  lead  from  the  rooms  to  the  steps  of  the  bath. 
The  purpose  to  which  these  rooms  were  applied  has  been  th' 
subject  of  much  speculation ;  but  from  their  situation  and 
arrangement,  there  can,  we  think,  be  little  doubt  that  they 
were  intended  for  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  bathers, 
and  probably  served  as  places  where  they  might  undress  and 
dress  themselves,  sheltered  from  the  weather  and  the  rays  of 
the  sun.  In  the  wall  that  fronts  the  entrance  of  each  room  is 
a  square  niche,  or  recess,  probably  intended  for  a  statue.  On 
both  sides  of  these  recesses  are  paintings  of  females  holding 
in  their  hands  large  scollop  shells  or  basins,  and  under 
each  niche  is  a  round  hole,  from  w^hich  perha^DS  issued  a  pipe 
with  a  jet  d^eau.  The  walls  of  these  apartments  are  painted 
with  landscape  and  architecture,  dancing  satyrs,  pigmies, 
dolphins,  sphinxes,  &c.  The  lower  part  of  the  walls  to 
about  a  yard  from  the  floor  is  not  painted,  but  seems  to  have 
been  covered  with  slabs  of  marble,  which  are  now  missing. 
The  southernmost  of  these  rooms  leads  into  another  apart- 
ment*(l6),  w^hich  has  also  a  door  towards  the  portico.  It  is  a 
plain  apartment,  with  little  decoration,  and  the  purpose  of  it 
cannot  be  satisfactorily  ascertained.  Some  have  called  it  an 
apodyferium,  or  stripping  room,  but  its  situation  seems  not  at 
all  suited  for  such  a  pm'pose.  It  was  much  more  probably 
the  destridarium  mentioned  in  the  inscription  before  quoted. 
This  was  an  apartment  appropriated  to  the  operation  of 
scraping  off  the  perspiration  and  the  oil  and  sand  with 
which  the  body  had  been  anointed  and  sprinkled  as  a  pre- 
paration for  the  exercises  of  the  palaestra.  The  situation  of 
the  room,  close  to  the  place  where  the  game  with  the  ball^^ 
before  mentioned  was  played,  seems  to  favour  this  supposition. 
The  iron  hooks  observed  in  this  apartment  may  have  served  to 
hold  the  strigiles  witli  which  this  operation  was  performed. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS.  179 

These  impalements  were  of  bronze  or  iron,  of  various  forms,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  annexed  cuts.  Tliey  were  applied  to  the 


Strigiles. 


body  much  in  the  sam^c  way  as  we  sec  a  piece  of  hoop  ap- 
plied to  a  sweating  horse.  The  ()})eiation  was  rather  a  rough 
one,  and,  as  we  learn  from  Suetonius,  the  Emperor  Augustus 
suffered  from  having  been  too  rudely  handled. 

The  outside  walls  of  these  apartments  on  the  left  hand 
side  of  the  palaistra  are  very  richly  ornamented  with  paint- 
ings and  designs  executed  in  stucco.  Fantastic  pieces  of 
architecture,  consisting  of  tall  slender  colunnis  with  cornices, 
appear  to  divide  the  walls  into  two  stories  and  into  various 
compartments,  some  square,  some  vaulted.  Sometimes  are 
seen  doors  and  steps  which  seem  to  lead  into  inner  apart- 
ments. There  are  projecting  balconies,  draperies  hanging 
from  the  cornices,  garlands  suspended  from  pillar  to  pillar, 
and  other  light  and  cheerful,  but  exceedingly  fantastic  de- 
corations. Over  the  doorway  of  the  first  room  adjoining  the 
natatio  is  a  well-preserved  figure  of  a  Jupiter  in  stucco.  The 
king  of  gods  and  men  is  sitting  on  a  square  stone,  on  which 
he  rests  with  his  left  arm,  whilst  in  his  right  hand  he  holds 
his  sceptre.  Before  him,  on  a  short  pillar,  sits  his  e^gle. 
On  the  northern  wall  are  also  the  rema'ns  of  two  or  three 
female  figures  in  relief. 

To  the  north  of  the  Natatio  and  its  adjoining  apartment 
is  a  long  passage  (29)  with  an  entrance  into  the  palaestra 
from  the  Vico  del  Lupanarc.  It  communicates  with  another 
entrance  cn  the  south  (50).    On  the  other  s'de  of  the  Baths 


180 


POMPEII. 


is  an  entrance  from  the  Stracla  Stabiana  into  the  corridor 
(43),  and  another  into  that  marked  42  and  45. 


The  side  of  the  palaestra  opposite  to  that  just  described^ 
contains  the  warm  baths.     They  consist,  like  the  baths  pre- 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


181 


viously  discovered,  of  two  complete  suites  of  apartments, 
each  having  an  apodyterium,  frigidarium,  tepidarium,  and 
caldarium,  and  between  them  the  furnace  (47)  by  which  both 
suites  w^ere  heated.  This  arrangement  of  the  furnace  seems 
to  show  that  both  these  sets  of  baths  v/ere  used  simultaneously  ; 
and  as  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  the  Eoman  custom  to 
have  distinct  baths  for  the  richer  and  poorer  classes,  we  are 
naturally  led  to  the  conclusion  that  one  of  these  sets  was 
intended  for  men  and  the  other  for  women.  Here,  however, 
we  are  met  by  the  objection  that  neither  of  the  sets  is  com- 
pletely isolated  and 'private,  as  is  the  case  with  the  baths 
assigned  to  the  women  in  the  previously  discovered  TJiermce, 
but  that  both  sets  have  an  entrance  from  the  palaestra. 
Hence  some  writers,  like  Michaelis,  have  been  led  to  con- 
clude tliat  the  set  which  occupies  the  further  or  northern 
part  of  this  side  of  the  building,  which  is  smaller  and  less 
decorated  than  the  other,  formed  at  one  time  the  only  set, 
to  which  were  afterwards  added  the  larger  and  more  elegant 
baths  to  the  south  of  them.  Overbeck  has  shown*  that  such 
a  theory  is  inconsistent  with  the  whole  plan  of  the  building. 
It  assumes,  for  instance,  that  half  the  eastern  portico  must  at 
one  time  have  adjoined  buildings  which  did  not  belong  to 
the  establishment,  a  thing  not  at  all  probable.  Again,  if  we 
suppose  that  the  area  now  occupied  by  the  larger  set  of  baths 
was  at  one  time  private  property,  and  therefore  to  be  struck 
out  of  the  original  ground  plan  of  the  establishment,  the  form 
of  the  remaining  ground  plan  would  be  so  strange  and  irre- 
gular as  to  render  such  a  suj^position  in  the  highest  degree 
improbable.  But  though  we  agree  with  Overbeck  in  rejecting 
this  view,  we  cannot  say  that  we  are  entirely  satisfied  with 
his  own.  He  supposes  that  both  sets  of  baths  were  intended 
for  the  use  of  men ;  and  that  the  j)lan  of  double  baths,  instead 
of  one  large  and  magnificent  one,  was  adopted  from  motives 
of  economy  both  in  the  construction  and  the  heating  of  them. 
He  further  explains  the  dilferent  degree  of  elegance  in  the 
decoration '  of  the  two  sets  by  supposing  that  the  baths  were 
in  process  of  restoration,  which  in  the  southern  set  had  been 
completed,  but  not  in  the  northern. 

Upon  this  we  must  remark  that,  if  both  sets  of  baths  had 


*  Fompeh\  &c.,  B.  i.  S.  221,  scq. 


182 


POMPEII. 


been  intended  for  men,  there  would  have  been  a  more  direct 
cormnunication  between  them  than  at  present  exists.  For 
though  it  is  true  that  each  of  them  is  accessible  from  the 
palaBstra,  yet,  in  order  to  pass  from  one  to  the  other,  such  a 
round-about  way  must  be  taken  as  to  show  plainly  that  they 
were  not  intended  to  be  used,  in  common.  The  rules  for  the 
separation  of  the  men's  and  women's  baths  do  not  appear  to 
have  been  always  strictly  observed,  and  were  not  finally 
established  till  the  time  of  Hadrian,  consequently  after  the 
destruction  of  Pompeii.  But  in  the  present  instance,  though 
the  women's  baths  are  not  so  strictly  isolated  as  they  are  in 
the  other  Thermae,  yet  with  some  common  precautions,  such 
as  keeping  the  doors  leading  to  them  shut,  or  having  door- 
keepers, they  were  sufficiently  so  to  insure  perfect  decency. 
The  arrangement  and  decoration  of  the  further  set  of  baths 
are  so  similar  to  that  of  what  in  the  other  Thermae  are  agreed 
on  all  hands  to  have  been  the  women's  baths,  as  to  make  it 
difficult  to  suppose  that  they  were  not  applied  to  the  same 
purpose.  It  may  be  further  remarked  that  the  wall  of  the 
lobby  or  corridor  (44)  which  forms  the  entrance  to  these  baths 
from  the  palaestra  is  decorated  with  a  painting  of  a  small 
temple  and  serpents,  intended  probably  to  warn  a  profane 
intruder  of  the  male  sex  that  he  had  no  business  to  enter 
those  precincts. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  describe  the  baths,  beginning  with 
those  near  the  principal  entrance  of  the  palaestra,  which  we 
have  assum'ed  to  be  the  men's  baths.  Entering  the  first  door 
under  the  portico  on  the  right,  we  find  ourselves  in  a  sort  of 
passage,  or  prothyrum  (30),  handsomely  painted,  and  having  on 
the  left  a  stone  bench.  On  the  right  is  a  door  leading  into  a 
plain  apartment  (8),  with  two  windows,  probably  used  by  the 
attendants.  Passing  the  prothyrum,  we  enter  another  long 
passage  which  on  the  right  had  an  exit  to  the  Street  of 
Holconius  through  a  door  now  walled  up,  while  on  the  left  we 
enter  a  vaulted  apartment  (31)  more  handsomely  ornamented 
than  any  other  in  these  baths.  The  red  walls  are  decorated 
with  various  designs,  whilst  the  roof  is  richly  worked  in 
stucco,  with  round  and  octagonal  cassettes,  or  sunken  panels, 
in  which  are  variously  coloured  reliefs,  in  the  former  on  a  blue, 
in  the  latter  on  a  black  ground.  The  reliefs  represent  sea- 
monsters  and  Cupids ;  ^^  hile  in  four  larger  compartments  are 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


183 


female  figures  partly  undraped.  This  apartment,  whicli  seems 
to  have  been  the  waiting-room,  is  paved  with  marble.  It  has 
a  door  leading  into  the  portico  of  the  palestra,  and  another 
forming  the  entrance  to  a  handsome  circular  bath-room  (33), 
lighted  by  an  aperture  or  lanthorn  in  the  roof.  This,  which 
was  no  doubt  the  cella  frigidar la,  or  cold  bath,  bears  consider- 
able resemblance  to  the  apai  tment  destined  for  the  same  use 
in  the  other  baths.  In  its  circumference  are  four  vaulted 
recesses,  or  niches,  largo  enough  to  hold  a  chair.  Another 
little  niche,  op;^osite  to  the  entrance,  was  furnished  with  a 
jet  d'eau.  All  round  the  basin  are  steps  to  descend  into  it. 
The  walls  were  adorned  with  stucco  ornaments  and  paintings, 
now  much  effaced.  Of  the  latter,  all  that  can  be  made  out  is 
the  figure  of  a  sleeping  Venus,  with  her  back  turned  to  the 
spectator. 

From  the  apartment  or  waiting-room  first  described,  we 
descend  by  one  step  into  the  apodyterium  (32),  a  large  hall 
twelve  or  thirteen  yards  long  by  about  ten  broad.  Four  strong 
square  pillars  projecting  from  the  side  walls,  and  supporting 
two  arches  of  the  vaulted  roof,  divide  the  chamber  into  three 
compartments,  but  of  very  different  sizes,  the  largest  being  in 
the  middle.  A  stone  bench  with  a  step  beneath  suiTounds 
the  room,  with  the  exception  of  the  left  side  of  it,  as  far  as 
the  second  pillar.  Over  the  bench  are  niches  for  depositing 
clothes,  or  for  perfume  jars,  &c.  They  rest  upon  an  abacus, 
like  those  in  the  other  baths,  but  the  intervals  are  not  orna- 
mented with  Telamones.  In  other  respects  this  apodyterium 
is  more  richly  ornamented  than  the  same  apartment  in  the 
baths  first  excavated.  The  floor  is  of  marble ;  the  vaulted 
roof  is  tastefully  adorned  with  ornaments  in  stucco,  but  un- 
fortunately the  greater  part  of  it  has  fallen  in.  The  orna- 
ments consist  of  square  or  sexagonal  panels,  in  which 
are  rosettes,  Cupids,  and  Bacchic  figures.  At  the  sides 
of  the  arches  over  the  pillars  are  females  holding  dol- 
phins which  terminate  in  arabesques.  The  semicircular 
compartments  formed  by  the  vaulted  roof  in  the  walls  of 
entry  and  exit  are  also  richly  adorned  with  reliefs  in  stucco. 

A  door  in  the  further  wall  of  the  apodyterium  leads  into  a 
sort  of  corridor  or  passage  behind  (42),  whilst  another  door  on 
the  left  conducts  us  into  what  must  Lave  been  the  tepidarium 
(34).    At  the  bottom  is  a  large  bath,  originally  lined  vdih 


184 


P03IPEII. 


marble,  whicli  seems  to  have  been  heated  by  a  stove  mider- 
neath.  One  of  the  slabs  of  marble  appears  to  have  contained 
a  dedicatory  inscription  to  the  Emperor  Augustus,  bearing  the 
date  of  his  eleventh  consulship,  which  fell  in  the  second  year 
of  the  Christian  era.  The  slab  was  placed  in  the  bath  with 
the  inscription  downwards,  which  has  thus  left  its  impression 
in  high  relief  in  the  mortar  in  which  it  was  fixed.  There 
is  no  basin  like  that  just  described  in  the  tepidarium  of  the 
other  baths.  It  was  probably  intended,  as  Overbeck  remarks, 
for  those  who  took  a  luke-warm  bath,  by  way  perhaps  of 
preparation  for  the  caldarium.  This  apartment  is  also 
adorned  with  reliefs  in  stucco,  but  not  so  richly  as  the  tepi- 
darium of  the  other  baths.  The  floor,  like  that  of  the  latter, 
rested  on  small  brick  pillars  {susjjensura),  thus  leaving  a 
hollow  for  the  circulation  of  the  warm  air.  But  the  whole 
room  is  in  a  ruinous  condition. 

From  the  tepidarium  a  door  communicates  with  the  cal- 
darium (36),  which  has  also  a  floor  like  that  just  described. 
The  hot  air  from  the  furnaces  beyond,  which  circulated  under 
this  apartment,  was  communicated,  of  course  in  a  cooler 
state,  to  the  floor  of  the  tepidarium  by  means  of  an  opening 
under  the  doorway.  The  arrangement  of  the  caldarium  is 
the  same  as  that  seen  in  the  earlier  discovered  baths — a 
labrum  at  the  circular  end  (35),  in  the  middle  the  sudatorium, 
with  hollow  walls  besides  the  suspended  floor,  and  at  the 
other  end  a  large  basin  for  the  hot  bath,  having  over  it  three 
niches  for  statues.  Adjoining  the  northern  side  of  the  cal- 
darium, but  without  any  visible  communication  with  it,  was 
the  furnace.  The  caldarium  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
very  richly  ornamented,  and  is  now  almost  in  ruins. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  describe  the  other  set  of  baths, 
which  we  have  ventured  to  assign  to  the  women.  On  the 
northern  side  of  the  palaistra,  just  opposite  the  principal  en- 
trance from  the  Street  of  Holconius  (at  17),  stands  a  female 
terminal  figure,  with  well-executed  drapery.  It  might  perhaps 
seem  a  rather  strained  inference  to  assume  that  this  figure 
was  intended  to  denote  the  purpose  to  which  this  part  of  the 
building  was  devoted ;  though  in  deductions  which  must  in  a 
great  degree  depend  upon  conjecture,  we  have  sometimes 
seen  more  far-fetched  arguments  adduced.  How^ever  this 
may  be,  it  is  certain  that  this  figure  stands  before  one  of  the 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


185 


principal  apartments  of  this  second  set  of  batlis,  and  seems 
to  mark  their  termination  towards  the  west.  The  entrance 
to  them  is  by  a  door  near  the  top  of  the  eastern  side  of  the 
portico,  which  leads  into  the  long  corridor  (44)  already  men- 
tioned having  a  picture  of  a  temple  and  snakes.  A  door  at  the 
end  of  this  corridor,  on  the  left,  leads  into  a  large  oblong  hall 
(40),  having  at  its  western  or  left  extremity  a  raised  basin,  des- 
tined apparently  for  the  cold  bath,  with  steps  to  ascend  to  it. 
The  apartment  has  a  bench  round  it  and  niches  in  the  wall. 
It  was  undoubtedly  an  a23odyterium,  and  bears  so  striking 
a  resemblance  to  the  apodyterium  of  the  women's  baths-  in 
the  Thermae  first  discovered,  as  to  afford  no  slight  confirma- 
tion to  the  opinion  that  it  served  the  same  purpose  here. 
The  apartment,  which  is  well  preserved,  is  much  more 
simply  decorated  than  the  apodyterium  of  the  men's  baths. 
The  walls  between  the  bench  and  the  abacus  of  the  niches 
are  red,  and  the  remainder  white.  The  vaulted  roof  has  two 
round  openings  or  windows,  and  there  is  another  over  the 
bath.  The  floor  is  paved  with  ojms  Signinum.  There  are 
two  other  entrances  to  this  apodyterium,  on  the  right  and 
left,  from  a  long  and  narrow  passage  or  corridor  which  runs 
along  the  whole  northern  side  of  the  establishment.  The 
passage  on  the  right  (41)  leads  from  the  Street  of  StabisB, 
that  on  the  left  (48,  48),  which  is  much  longer,  from  the  Street 
of  the  Lupanar.  It  may  be  observed  that  these  passages  lead 
only  into  that  part  of  the  establishment  which  we  have  assigned 
to  the  women's  baths,  thus  ensuring  their  privacy  on  this  side. 
The  apartment  marked  39  in  the  plan  has  no  communication 
whatever  with  the  Baths.  It  has  an  opening  into  the  Strada 
Stabiana,  and  was  probably  a  shop. 

A  door  in  the  right-hand  corner  of  the  apodyterium,  close 
to  that  by  which  it  is  entered  from  the  corridor,  leads  into 
the  tepidarium  (38).  This  apartment  is  very  simply  decorated. 
The  floor,  which  rests  on  suspensurce,  is  paved  with  coarse 
white  mosaic ;  the  walls  are  also  hollow  in  order  to  circulate 
the  hot  vapour ;  and  even  its  vaulted  roof  seems  to  have  had 
a  hollow  coating  of  stacco,  which,  however,  has  now  fallen 
in.  A  door  in  the  middle  of  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
tepidarium  leads  into  the  caldarium  (37).  This  apartment, 
except  that  it  is  not  so  large,  corresponds  precisely  with  the 
caldarium  already  described  in  the  men's  baths  and  with  that 


186 


POMPEII. 


of  the  previously  discovered  Thermse.  On  one  of  its  smaller 
sides,  on  the  left,  is  a  large  oblong  bath  of  white  marble,  in 
a  perfect  state  of  preservation,  having  at  the  bottom  of  one 
of  its  sides  a  large  semicircular  aperture  for  the  admission  of 
hot  water,  and  above  it  a  bronze  tube,  capable  of  being  closed 
with  a  cock,  to  let  in  cold  water.  At  the  opposite  end  of  the 
hall  is  the  semicircular  laconicum,  with  its  lahrum,  or  large 
round  vase  of  white  niarble,  having  a  pipe  in  the  middle  to  fill 
it  with  hot  water.  The  floor  and  walls  of  this  apartment  are 
also  hollow.  It  is  more  elegantly  decorated  than  the  rooms 
just  described.  The  walls  are  red,  and  are  picked  out  with 
little  stucco  pilasters  painted  yellow^  with  white  capitals,  and 
springing  from  a  narrow  marble  border.  The  wall  of  the  la- 
conicum  is  richly  adorned  with  stucco,  and  has  a  window 
lighted  from  the  corridor  leading  into  the  palaestra.  The  floor 
is  of  fine  white  mosaic.  Between  this  caldarium  and  that  of 
the  other  set,  or  men's  baths,  is  situated  the  furnace  for  heating 
both. 

Behind  the  left  or  western  half  of  the  northern  side  of  the 
palaestra  lies  another  set  of  rooms,  the  destination  of  some 
of  which  is  sufficiently  obvious,  while  that  of  others  is  diffi- 
cult to  be  explained.  This  suite  of  apartments  is  entered  by 
a  long  passage  (21)  from  the  Street  of  the  Lupanar,  leading 
to  a  room  (22)  abutting  upon  the  western  end  of  the  women's 
apodyterium,  and  communicating  with  the  palaestra  by  a  door 
on  the  right.    At  the  further  end  of  this  room  is  a  staircase 

(24)  ,  which  led  to  an  upper  story.  On  the  left-hand  side  of 
the  passage,  coming  from  the  street,  are  four  small  rooms 
(28)  adjoining  one  another,  fitted  up  as  private  baths,  or  what 
the  ancients  called  solia.   Beyond  these,  a  passage  on  the  left 

(25)  leads  into  a  good-sized  room  (26),  having  round  it  a  sort 
of  channel  or  canal.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  latrina. 
The  room  beyond,  already  mentioned  as  adjoining  the  apody- 
terium and  having  an  entrance  into  the  palaestra,  has  a  small 
compartment,  or  cabinet  (23),  the  use  of  which  it  is  not  easy 
to  determine.  On  the  left  was  a  steep  staircase  leading  to  an 
upper  story.  The  space  marked  27  appears  to  have  been 
unoccupied. 

On  the  right-hand  side  of  the  long  passage  leading  from 
the  Via  del  Lupanare,  and  close  to  the  entrance,  are  three 
rooms,  the  destination  of  which  is  uncertain.    The  first  may 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BATHS. 


187 


possibly  have  been  the  lodge  of  the  osilarius  or  porter.  The 
second  has  steps  leading  down  to  what  appears  to  be  a  sort  of 
cellar,  but  is  thought  to  have  given  admission  to  the  canal 
or  drain  bj  which  the  water  of  the  baths  was  carried  off. 
The  destination  of  the  third  room  (20)  cannot  even  be  con- 
jectured. 

Bef  n'o  concluding  this  account  of  the  Stabian  baths,  we 
should  mention  that  under  the  portico,  near  the  entrance  to 
the  men's  baths,  was  found  a  sun-dial,  consisting  as  usual  of 
a  half  circle  inscribed  in  a  rectangle,  and  wdth  the  gnomon 
in  perfect  preservation.  It  was  supported  by  lion's  feet  and 
elegantly  ornamented.  On  its  base  was  au  Oscan  inscription, 
which  has  been  interpreted  as  follows  by  Minervini :  Marius. 
Atlnius,  Marii  filius,  quaestor,  ex  multatitia  pecunia  conventus 
decreto  fieri  mandavit.  That  is  :  the  Quaestor  M.  Atinius,  in 
accordance  with  a  decree  of  the  assembly,  caused  it  to  be 
made  oui;  of  money  levied  by  fines.  The  title  of  "  Quaestor  " 
seems  to  show  that  this  inscription  must  have  been  written 
after  the  occupation  of  Pompeii  by  the  Romans,  but  at  the 
same  time  at  a  period  when  the  Oscan  tongue  continued  to  be 
generally  spoken.*  The  fines  alluded  to  were  probably  levied 
for  breaches  of  the  rules  to  be  observed  in  the  palaestra. 

*  Breton,  Pompeii,  p.  159.  Overbeck  however  is  of  opinion  that  the 
l^mpeiaiis  had  m^'gistrates  called  Quaestors  before  the  Roman  occupation  ;  but 
this  does  not  seem  very  probable. 


Vases  for  Perfumes. 


188 


POMPEII. 


Figure  with  a  mask,  from  a  painting  in  Pomptii. 

CHAPTEE  YIT. 

THE  THEATRES. 

The  regular  drama  was  not  of  indigenons  growth,  and  never 
took  lirm  root  in  Italy.  It  was  unknown  until  about  two 
centuries  and  a  half  before  Christ,  when  Grecian  literature 
began  to  be  cultivated,  and  never  rose  to  be  more  than  a 
■feeble  transcript  of  the  original.  The  Eomans  were  first  led 
to  theatrical  amusements  as  a  means  of  appeasing  the  anger 
of  the  gods,  having  been  before  only  acquainted  with  gym- 
nastic exercises  and  circus  races.  During  a  desolating  pesti- 
lence, which  seemed  proof  against  all  remedies,  they  sent  for 
histriones  from  Eiruria,  B.C.  364.  These,  however,  seem  to 
have  been  merely  dancers,  or  tumblers  rather,  such  as  are 
represented  on  the  Etruscan  monuments.  The  oldest  spoken 
plays,  the  Fabulae  Atellanse,  were  borrowed  from  the  Osci,  of 
whom  we  often  have  had  to  speak,  and  appear  to  have  been 
rude  improvisatory  attempts  at  rustic  satire.  It  was  more 
than  500  years  after  the  era  usually  assigned  to  the  founda- 
tion of  Eome,  that  Livius  Andronicus  first  attempted  to 


THE  THEATRES. 


189 


imitate  the  Grecian  tragedy.  He  was  followed  by  Ennius 
and  Naevius,  and,  later,  by  a  number  of  writers  in  the  Au- 
gustan age  and  under  the  emperors  ;  but,  with  the  exception 
of  some  fragments,  and  the  tragedies  ascribed  to  Seneca,  all 
their  works  are  lost.  This  is  the  less  to  be  lamented,  because 
it  does  not  appear  that  a  single  Eoman  tragedy  was  ever 
composed  upon  a  E-oman  subject. 

In  the  comic  department  the  Romans  displayed  more  origi- 
nality. The  Fabulae  Atellanae  were  so  popular,  that  youths  of 
noble  family  engaged  in  the  representation  of  them ;  and,  in 
consequence,  the  professional  actors  employed  in  them  were 
exempted  from  the  ignominy  which  attached  to  other  theatri- 
cal ai'tists.  Similar  to  these  probably,  but  more  polished, 
were  the  Mimi.  These  were  composed  in  verse,  in  the  Latin 
language,  and  sometimes  were  delivered  extempore.  Laberius 
and  ^yrus  are  the  two  most  celebrated  writers  of  them.  The 
former  was  compelled  by  a  request,  equivalent  to  a  command, 
from  Julius  Caesar  to  appear  on  the  stage,  although  his  com- 
pliance was  attended  with  the  loss  of  civil  rights ;  and  the 
prologue  which  he  spoke  on  this  occasion  is  still  extant,  and 
expresses  nobly  and  feelingly  his  sense  of  the  injury.  Time 
has  left  us  no  specimens  of  either  of  these  species  of  composi- 
tion ;  and  the  scanty  notices  which  remain  concerning  them 
do  not  enable  us  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  their  nature. 

The  regular  comedy  of  the  Romans,  which  is  preserved  to 
us  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  was  for  the  most  part  palliata, 
that  is,  it  ajipeared  in  a  Grecian  dress  and  represented 
Grecian  manners.  But  they  had  also  a  comoedia  togata,  so 
called  from  the  Roman  dress  which  was  worn  in  it.  Afranius 
was  the  principal  writer  in  this  walk.  We  have  no  remains 
whatever  of  his  writings,  nor  can  we  determine  whether  the 
togatoe  were  original  comedies  of  new  invention,  or  merely 
Grecian  comedies  adapted  to  Roman  manners.  The  latter 
case  is  the  more  probable,  yet  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive  how 
Attic  comedies  could  well  be  adapted  to  local  circumstances 
of  so  different  a  nature.  The  way  of  living  of  the  Romans 
was  in  general  serious  and  grave,  during  the  republic.  The 
diversity  of  ranks  was  politically  marked  in  a  very  decided 
manner,  and  the  wealth  of  private  individuals  was  frequently 
not  inferior  to  that  of  jn-inces ;  women  lived  much  more  in 
society,  and  acted  a  much  more  independent  part  with  thorn 


190  po:.iPEii. 

than  among  the  Greeks  ;  and  from  this  independence  they 
fully  shared  in  the  general  refinement  of  manners,  and  the 
corruption  by  which  that  refinement  was  accomjjanied.  In 


Comic  Scene  from  a  Paiutiiig  iu  the  house  of  CasLor  and  Pollux  at  Pompeii. 


these  points,  Athenian  habits  were  the  antipodes  of  Roman ; 
and  with  such  essential  diiferences  between  them,  an  original 
Roman  comedy  would  have  been  a  most  valuable  j)roduction, 


Comic  Scene  from  a  Painting  at  Pumpeii. 


and  would  have  given  us  that  insight  into  the  private  feelings 
and  private  life  of  this  remarkable  people,  which  is  of  all 
knowledge  the  most  curious  and  important.    That  this,  how- 


THE  THEATRES. 


191 


ever,  was  not  accomplished  in  the  comadia  togata,  the  in- 
different manner  in  which  it  is  mentioned  by  the  ancients 
will  hardly  allow  us  to  doubt.  Quintilian  himself  informs 
us  that  the  Latin  literature  "  was  lamest  in  comedy."  * 

Vitruvius  has  given  some  minute  directions,  strongly  illus- 
trative of  the  importance  of  the  subject,  for  choosing  a  proper 
situation  for  a  theatre.  "  When  the  Forum  is  finished,  a 
healthy  situation  must  be  sought  for,  wherein  the  theatre 
may  be  erected  to  exhibit  sports  on  the  festival  days  of  the 
immortal  gods.  For  the  spectators  are  detained  in  their 
seats  by  the  entertainment  of  the  games,  and  remaining  quiet 
for  a  long  time,  their  pores  are  opened,  and  imbibe  the 
draughts  of  air,  which,  if  they  come  from  marshy  or  other- 
wise unhealthy  places,  will  pour  injurious  humours  into  the 
body.  Neither  must  it  front  the  south  :  t  for  when  the  sun 
fills  the  concavity,  the  inclosed  air,  unable  to  escape  or  circu- 
late, is  heated,  and  then  extracts  and  dries  up  the  juices  of  the 
body.  It  is  also  to  be  carefully  observed  that  the  place  be 
not  unfitted  to  transmit  sound,  but  one  in  which  the  voice 
may  expand  as  clearly  as  possible."  X 

It  is  probable  that  the  natural  sweep  of  some  dell,  hollowed 
out  in  a  hill-side,  furnished  the  original  design  of  a  theatre  ; 


Comic  Scene  from  a  Painting  at  Pompeii. 

and  the  Greeks  always  availed  themselves,  if  possible,  of  a 
hill-side,  or  some  locality  which  lightened  the  labour  of  the 

*  The  above  sketch  of  the  Roman  theatre  is  compressed  from  Schlegel's 
Lectures  on  Dramatic  Literature,  sect.  viii. 

t  Which,  however,  is  the  case  with  the  theatre  of  Pompeii. 
X  A'ltruv.  V.  o. 


192 


POMPEII. 


building.  At  Nyssa  the  theatre  occupies  an  angle  in  a  ravine 
partially  filled  up  ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  only  instances  now 
known  of  Grecian  theatres  built  in  a  plain,  are  those  of 
Mantineia  and  Megalopolis,  and  a  small  one  in  Asia  Minor.* 
The  Roman  theatres,  on  the  other  hand,  were  usually  elevated 
upon  arches,  wherever  a  suitable  situation  could  be  found, 
without  regard  to  economical  consideratiuns.  That  at  Pom- 
peii, however,  is  hollowed  out  of  a  hill ;  which  may  lead 
us  to  conclude  that  it  was  originally  founded  by  a  Greek 
population,  though  it  w^as  evidently  reconstructed  after  the 
Eoman  occupation. 

In  a  Roman  theatre  the  orchestra  was  bounded  towards 
the  cavea  by  a  semicircle.  Complete  the  circle,  draw  the 
diameters  BB,  HH,  perpendicular  to  each  other,  and  inscribe 
four  equilateral  triangles,  whose  vertices  shall  fall  severally 
upon  the  ends  of  the  diameters  ;  the  twelve  angles  of  the 


Plan  of  the  Roman  Theatre, 


triangles  will  divide  the  circumference  into  twelve  equal 
portions.  The  side  of  the  triangle  opposite  to  the  angle  at 
B  will  be  parallel  to  the  diameter  HH,  and  determines  the 
j)lace  of  the  scene,  as  HH  determines  the  front  of  the  stage, 

*  Stuart's  Athens,  vol.  iv. ;  On  the  Greek  Theatre,  p.  36. 


THE  THEATRES. 


193 


or  pulpitum.  By  this  construction  the  stage  is  brought  nearer 
to  the  audience,  and  made  considerably  deeper  than  in  a  Greek 
theatre ;  its  depth  being  determined  at  a  quarter  of  the  dia- 
meter of  the  orchestra,  which  itself  was  usually  a  third  or 
somewhat  more  of  the  diameter  of  the  whole  building.  The 
length  of  the  stage  was  twice  the  diameter  of  the  orchestra. 
The  increased  depth  of  the  ^age  was  rendered  necessary  by 
the  greater  number  of  persons  assembled  on  it,  the  chorus 
and  musicians  being  placed  here  by  the  Eomans.  A  fm'ther 
consequence  of  the  construction  is,  that  the  circumference  of 
the  cavea  could  not  exceed  one  hundred  and  eighty  degrees. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  capacity  of  the  theatre  was  increased 
by  throwing  the  stage  further  back,  and  continuing  the  seats 
in  right  lines  j^erpendicular  to  the  diameter  of  the  orchestra. 
This  is  the  case  in  the  great  theatre  at  Pompeii,  and  seems 
also  to  indicate  that  it  was  originally  of  Greek  construction. 
Within  the  orchestra  were  circular  ranges  of  seats  for  the 
senate  and  other  distinguished  persons,  leaving  a  level  plat- 
form in  the  centre.  The  seven  angles  which  fall  within  the 
circumference  of  the  orchestra  mark  the  places  at  which  stair- 
cases up  to  the  first  praecinctio,  or  landing,  were  to  be  placed  ; 
those  leading  from  thence  to  the  second,  if  there  were  more 
than  one,  were  placed  intermediately  opposite  to  the  centre  of 
each  cuneus.  The  number  of  staircases,  whether  seven,  five, 
or  three,  of  course  depended  on  the  size  of  the  theatre.  In 
the  great  theatres  of  Eome,  the  space  between  the  orchestra 
and  first  prascinctio,  usually  consisting  of  fourteen  seats,  was 
reserved  for  the  equestrian  order,  tribimes,  &c. :  all  above  these 
were  the  scats  of  the  plebeians.  Women  were  appointed  by 
Augustus  to  sit  in  the  portico,  which  encompassed  the  whole. 
The  lowest  range  of  seats  was  raised  above  the  area  of  the 
orchestra  one-sixth  of  its  diameter :  the  height  of  each  seat 
is  directed  not  to  exceed  one  foot  four  inches,  nor  to  be  less 
than  one  foot  three.  The  breadth  is  not  to  exceed  two  feet 
four  inches,  nor  to  be  less  than  one  foot  ten.  The  stage,  to 
consult  the  convenience  of  those  who  sit  in  the  orchestra,  is 
only  elevated  five  feet,  less  than  half  the  height  given  to  the 
Grecian  stage.  The  ancient  scene  was  not,  like  that  of  the 
modern  stage,  capable  of  being  shifted.  It  consisted  of  a 
solid  building  (scena  stahilis),  representing  the  fa9ade  of  a 
royal  palace,  and  adorned  with  the  richest  architectural  orna- 

o 


191 


POMPEII. 


ments.  It  was  built  of  stone,  or  brick  cased  with  marble, 
and  had  three  doors,  of  which  the  middle  one,  called  porta 
regia,  larger  and  handsomer  than  the  others,  was  suj)posed  to 
form  the  entrance  to  the  palace.  This  was  used  only  in  the 
representation  of  tragedies,  and  then  only  by  the  principal 
personages  of  the  drama.  The  door  in  the  right  wing  was 
appropriated  to  inferior  persoflages,  and  that  on  the  left  to 
foreigners  or  persons  coming  from  abroad.  In  our  plan,  the 
five  angles  of  the  triangles  not  yet  disposed  of  determine  the 
disposition  of  the  scene.  Opposite  the  centre  one  are  the 
regal  doors ;  on  each  side  are  those  by  which  the  secondary 
characters  entered.  Behind  the  scene,  as  in  the  Greek 
theatre,  there  were  apartments  for  the  actors  to  retire  into ; 
and  under  it  were  vaults  or  cellars,  which,  as  in  the  modern 
stage,  served  for  the  entrance  of  ghosts,  or  the  appliance  of 
any  needful  machinery.  The  p'osceniiim^  or  space  between 
the  orchestra  and  the  scene,  answering  to  our  stage,  though 
deeper  than  the  Greek,  was  of  no  great  depth,  which  was 
not  required  for  the  performance  of  ancient  dramas,  in  which 
only  a  few  personages  appeared  on  the  stage  at  once.  Be- 
sides, in  the  absence  of  any  roof,  the  voice  of  the  performers 
would  have  been  lost  if  the  stage  had  been  too  deep.  That 
of  Pompeii  is  only  about  twenty-one  feet  broad,  though  its 
length  is  one  hundred  and  nine.  Along  the  front  of  the 
stage,  and  between  it  and  the  orchestra,  runs  a  tolerably  deep 
linear  opening,  the  receptacle  for  the  aiilceum,  or  curtain,  the 
fashion  of  which  was  just  the  reverse  of  ours,  as  it  had  to  be 
depressed  instead  of  elevated  when  the  play  began.  This 
operation,  performed  by  machinery  of  which  we  have  no  clear 
account,  was  called  aulceum  premere,  as  in  the  well  known 
line  of  Horace  :  * — 

Quatuor  aut  plures  aulaea  premuntar  in  horas. 

It  should  however  be  mentioned  that  the  ancients  seem  also 
to  have  had  moveable  scenery  {scena  dudilis),  to  alter  the 
appearance  of  the  permanent  scene  when  required.  This  must 
have  consisted  of  painted  board  or  canvas. 

Another  method  of  illusion  was  by  the  use  of  masks. 
These  were  rendered  necessary  by  the  vastness  of  the  ancient 
theatres,  and  the  custom,  of  performing  in  the  open  air. 
♦  Epp.  ii.  1,  189. 


THE  THEATRES. 


Under  these  circumstances  the  more  distant  spectators  could 
neither  have  distinguished  the  features  of  the  actor  nor  heard 
his  voice.  To  obviate  these  inconveniences  masks  were  in- 
vented, which  not  only  by  their  exaggerated  features  and  ex- 
pression could  be  discerned  in  the  remotest  part  of  the 
theatre,  but  also  seem  to  have  been  contrived  to  assist  the  voice 
of  the  actor,  and  render  it  audible  from  afar.  These  masks 
were  brought  to  a  great  degree  of  beauty  and  perfection,  so 
that,  as  may  be  seen  at  Pompeii  in  several  instances,  they 
were  frequently  imitated  by  architects  in  cornices  and 
mouldings,  and  by  artists  in  paintings  of  festoons  and  other 
ornaments.  It  will  not  therefore  be  out  of  place  here  to 
give  some  account  of  their  origin  and  nature. 

We  have  not  the  means,  nor  would  it  be  to  the  purpose,  to 
describe  the  earliest  form  of  the  mask,  or  to  trace  its  pro- 
gress. Ultimately  it  was  formed  of  brass  or  some  sonorous 
material,  or  the  mouth  at  least  lined  with  metal,  so  as  to 
collect  and  reverberate  the  voice  with  something  like  the 
power  of  a  speaking-trumpet.  The  Greeks  called  it  irpoawTreLoy , 


Masks,  Dwarf,  and  Monkey,  from  a  painting. 


the  Latins  persona,  a  personando,  from  resounding,  "  because 
the  head  and  mouth  being  entirely  covered  by  it,  and  only 
one  passage  left  for  the  voice,  this  cannot  be  dissipated,  but 
being  collected  into  a  body  is  thus  rendered  clearer  and  more 
sonorous."*  Masks  were  made  to  contain  the  whole  head, 
covered  with  hair  of  colour  suitable  to  the  characters  they 
were  meant  to  represent,  and  seem  to  have  been  coloured,  for 
minute  directions  are  given  as  to  the  complexion  and  smooth 
or  wrinkled  character  of  the  face.  No  doubt  can  exist  as  to 
the  minute  attention  paid  to  this  subject  by  the  Greeks,  for 
Julius  Pollux  enumerates  no  less  than  twenty-six  classes  of 

*  Aul.  Cell.  V.  7. 


196 


POMPEII. 


tragic  masks,  each  distinguislied  by  what  apparently  is  its 
technical  name.  He  divides  them  into  the  ranks  of  men, 
young  men,  slaves,  and  women,  and  names  six  of  the  first, 
eight  of  the  second,  three  of  the  third,  and  nine  of  the  last. 
As  a  sample  of  the  arrangement  we  give  the  fii'st  class,  which 
consists  of  "  The  shaven  man,  the  white,  the  dishevelled  grey, 
the  black,  the  brown,  the  deeper  brown.'**  The  other  classes 
are  similarly  subdivided,  and  to  each  is  attached  a  short 
description  of  the  character  of  face  which  it  should  portray. 

The  shaven  man  is  the  oldest  of  all,  his  hair  quite  white, 
and  collected  upon  the  foretop  (oy/cos).  The  foretop  is  the 
upright  projection  above  the  face,  in  shape  like  the  letter  A. 
His  beard  is  close  shaven,  and  his  cheeks  pendulous.  The 
black  man  is  named  from  the  darkness  of  his  complexion  :  his 
hair  and  beard  are  curling,  his  face  rough,  and  his  foretop 
large."!  Such  is  the  exact  detail  continued  through  the  four 
classes,  and  these  seem  merely  to  have  been  the  regular 
stock  of  the  theatre  or  mask-maker;  for  he  afterwards 


enumerates  extraordinary  personages,  as  Actason  with  his 
horns,  or  many-eyed  Argus,  or  Tyro  with  bruised  cheeks,  as 

»  *a  fxep  TpayiKd.  $opia<;  avrjp,  Aev/cb?,  o-7rap-07rdAi09,  /ueAas  avr^p,  avr)p  ^avObs, 
o-t'tip  ^o-v96T€po<;.  'V. 

f  Pollux  Onomasticon,  iv.  19. 


THE  THEATRES. 


197 


introduced  by  Sophocles,  or  Gorgon,  or  Death,  or  a  Fury, 
and  a  host  more  of  mythological  personages,  or  Thamyris, 
with  one  eye  blue  and  the  other  black.  This  last  is  the  most 
extraordinary.  It  appears  from  the  marble  masks  still 
extant  that  the  white  of  the  eye  was  imitated,  leaving  only 
the  aperture  of  the  iris  to  see  through ;  but  the  irides  them- 
selves of  Thamyris's  eyes  must  have  been  imitated — an  extra- 
ordinary instance  of  minute  attention  to  propriety,  when 
two-thirds  of  the  spectators  probably  could  not  tell  whether 
he  had  any  irides  at  all.  The  same  may  be  observed  of 
Tyro's  black  and  blue  face. 

There  are  two  very  striking  tragic  masks  in  the  Townley 
Gallery.  The  male  is  remarkable  for  the  great  elevation  of 
the  hair  (oy/cos),  to  give  increased  stature  and  dignity  to  the 
actor ;  its  features  are  stern  and  exaggerated.  Those  of  the 
female  are  regular  and  beautiful,  and  bear  a  wild,  intense, 


inspired  expression  of  terror,  such  as  Cassandra  may  have 
worn  while  darkly  presaging  her  own  fate,  and  the  evils 
about  to  fall  on  the  house  of  Atrcus.  But  it  is  very  difficult 
to  convey  the  expression  of  a  mask  by  an  engraving.  The 
comic  masks  are  still  more  numerous  than  the  tragic.  The 
annexed  masks  belong  to  some  of  Terence's  characters :  they 
are  given  by  Mad.  Dacier,  on  the  authority  of  a  very  ancient 
manuscript  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris,  and  serve  to  illus- 


198 


POMPEII. 


trate  the  varieties  of  countenance  considered  applicable  to 
different  characters. 


There  are  others  devoted  to  the  satyric  drama.  This  was 
something  of  a  medium  between  tragedy  and  comedy  ;  in 
spirit  and  cheerfulness  it  resembled  the  latter,  but  its  ex- 
ternal form  was  derived  from  the  former,  and  its  subject  was 


Tragic  and  Grotesque  Llasks. 

mythological.  Its  distinctive  mark  was  a  chorus  of  satyrs, 
who  accompanied  such  heroic  adventures  as  were  of  a  more 
cheerful  hue  with  lively  songs,  gestures,  and  movements. 
The  immediate  cause  of  this  species  of  di^ama  was  derived 


THE  THEATRES. 


199 


from  tlie  festivals  of  Bacchus,  in  wliicli  satyr  masks  were  a 
common  disguise.  In  these  representations,  therefore,  the 
severe  beauty  of  the  tragic  mask,  softened  in  its  features  and 


Masked  figure  of  Silenus. 


expression,  was  combined  with  and  opposed  to  the  grotesque 
character  usually  given  to  Fauns  and  Sileni,  and  the  ancient 
sculptors  seem  to  have  been  fond  of  thus  contrasting  them. 
There  are  some  instances  of  this  in  the  Townley  Gallery, 


200 


POMPEII. 


from  which  a  drawing  is  given  on  p.  198.  "We  also  give  a 
masked  figure  of  Silenus  from  the  same  collection.  The 
only  existing  satyric  drama  is  the  Cyclops  of  Em^ipides. 

The  tragedians  rarely  travelled  out  of  the  mythic  age  : 
indeed  there  are  only  three  known  instances  of  subjects 
being  taken  from  a  more  recent  period — the  ca2)ture  of 
Miletus,  and  the  Phoenissae  by  Phrynichus,  and  the  Persee 
by  ^schylus,  the  two  latter  written  in  commemoration  of 
the  overthrow  of  Xerxes.  Hence  the  same  persons,  Achilles, 
Hercules,  Orestes,  Theseus,  were  continually  reappearing 
on  the  stage.  Vs  e  know  that  a  peculiar  costume  was  as- 
signed to  them — as  Priam  was  always  shaven ;  Ulysses 
dressed  in  a  cloak,  that  being  the  Ithacan  habit ;  Achilles 
and  Neoptolemus  were  introduced  with  diadems.  It  is  not 
improbable,  therefore,  that  they  had  a  traditionary  cast  of 
features  assigned  them ;  and  if  Mr.  Flaxman's  assertion  be 
correct,  that  the  Grecian  artists  had  for  each  of  their  prin- 
cipal deities  an  ideal  model  to  which  they  always  conformed, 
we  may  be  sm-e  that  when  introduced  on  the  stage  the 
orthodox  countenance  was  strictly  followed.  The  nature  of 
their  characters  therefore  created  a  further  inducement  to 
retain  and  improve  the  mask,  rather  than  to  cast  it  aside  as 
a  rude  and  mean  appendage  of  the  art  in  its  infancy. 


Comic  Scene  from  a  Painting  at  Pompeii. 


Devoted  as  the  Greeks  were  to  beauty,  an  ugly  or  plebeian 
Prometheus,  or  Agamemnon,  or  Achilles,  would  have  been 
intolerable,  but  an  ugly  Apollo  would  inevitably  have  been 
hooted  off  the  stage.    Many  imitations  of  masks  carved  in 


THE  THEATRES. 


201 


marble  still  exist,  which  display  great  beauty  and  excellence 
of  workmanship.  We  know  much  less  of  the  minutiae  of  the 
Eoman  than  of  the  Greek  theatre.  It  appears  from  a  passage 
in  Cicero  that  the  celebrated  Eoscius  sometimes  played 
without  his  mask,  and  that  this  was  preferred  by  his 
audience. 

It  is  evident  that  the  heads  of  the  actors,  when  covered 
with  a  mask,  must  have  appeared  disproportionately  large. 
To  remedy  this,  and  to  raise  their  stature  to  the  heroic 


Tragic  Scene  f.-om  a  Painting  at  Pompeii. 


standard,  a  thick-soled  boot  was  invented,  called  c/i/3as,  and 
K60opyo<;,  from  which  the  words  buskin  and  cothurnus  have 
become  almost  convertible  with  tragedy  in  the  Augustan  age 
of  Latin,  and  that  which  has  been  called  the  Augustan  age  of 
English  literature.  Distinguished  from  these  was  the  comic 
shoe,  lix^drrjc,  in  Latin,  soccus,  which  word  is  in  like  manner 
used  to  denote  comedy.  Both  the  cothurnus  and  the  oyKog 
above-mentioned  are  represented  in  the  annexed  outline 
of  a  painting  found  in  the  house  of  Castor  and  Pollux  at 
Pompeii.  The  proportion  of  the  figure,  thus  increased  in 
height,  was  preserved  by  lengthening  the  arms  with  gloves 
and  by  stuffing  and  padding  the  body,  so  as  to  convey  the 
idea  of  superhuman  size  and  strength.    How  all  this  was 


202 


POMPEII. 


consistent  with  anything  like  natural  speech  or  action,  it  is 
not  easy  to  imagine.  Distance  certainly  at  once  rendered 
the  increase  of  bulk  more  necessary,  and  softened  the  awk- 
wardness of  such  made-up  figures;  still,  in  spite  of  the 
acknowledged  purity  of  Grecian  taste,  and  of  the  exquisite 
art  and  splendour  lavished  on  their  adornment,  they  must 
surely  have  seemed  constrained  and  unnatural  to  any  eye 
not  habituated  to  such  spectacles.  It  is  evident  that  while 
this  method  of  representation  continued,  tragedy  could 
never  lose  its  uniform  and  measured  character.  If  the 
author  had  thought  it  consistent  with  the  dignity  of  the 
occasion  and  of  his  subject  to  introduce  those  tumultuous 
scenes,  that  abrupt  and  impassioned  dialogue,  which  in  the 
hands  of  our  elder  dramatists  produce  such  astonishing  effect, 
they  would  have  been  lost  in  the  delivery. 

The  theatre  was  usually  surrounded  with  porticoes,  which 
being  under  cover,  served  better  for  the  purposes  of  rehearsal 
than  the  open  stage.  A  very  beautiful  mosaic  has  been 
found  in  the  house  of  the  tragic  poet  at  Pompeii,  representing 
the  Choragus,*  or  master  of  the  chorus,  instructing  his 
actors  in  their  parts.  He  is  represented  as  sitting  on  a  chair 
in  the  Choragium,  or  place  devoted  to  these  rehearsals,  sur- 
rounded by  performers.  At  his  feet,  on  a  stool,  are  the 
various  masks  which  were  used ;  another  is  behind  him,  on  a 
pedestal;  these  he  seems  about  to  distribute.  One  of  the 
actors,  assisted  by  another,  is  putting  his  arms  through  the 
sleeves  of  a  thick  shaggy  tunic ;  while  the  Choragus  appears 
to  be  addressing  him  who  has  lifted  his  mask,  that  he  may 
show  by  the  expression  of  his  countenance  his  attention  to 
what  is  being  said.  In  the  middle  of  the  picture  is  a  female, 
crowned  with  a  wreath,  playing  on  the  double  flute,  or 
perhaps  tuning  the  instrument.  Two  of  the  figures  are  merely 
covered  round  the  loins  with  goat-skins.  Behind  the  figures 
are  represented  the  Ionic  columns  of  the  portico,  with  its 
entablature ;  above  this  is  a  kind  of  gallery,  decorated  with 
figures  and  vases,  and  garlands  are  also  hung  in  festoons 
between  the  columns.    This  mosaic  is  composed  of  very  fine 

*  The  Romans  termed  Choragus  the  person  whom  the  Greeks  named 
Chorodidascalas,  the  maitre  du  ballet.  The  Choragus,  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word,  was  the  person  at  whose  expense  the  chorus  and  decorations  were 
provided. 


THE  THEATRES. 


203 


pieces  of  glass,*  and  is  esteemed  one  of  tlie  most  beautiful 
that  Las  yet  been  discovered.    The  ground  is  black  and  the 


*  Until  lately  it  was  supposed  that  the  small  and  fine  mosaics  found  at 
Pompeii  were  made  of  stone  ;  but  it  lias  since  been  ascertained  that  they  are 
made  of  glass,  in  a  similar  manner  and  with  similar  materials  to  the  modern 
Roman  mosaics  now  so  celebrated. 


204 


POMPEII. 


figures  of  tlie  natural  colour.  The  dresses  are  mostly  white, 
but  the  robe  of  the  flute-player  is  bordered  with  purple ;  her 
garland,  flutes,  and  mouth-band  (^capistrum),  with  most  of  the 
ornaments,  are  gold-coloured.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the 
masks  are  all  coloured  in  imitation  of  life,  and  with  different 
complexions  and  hair,  according  to  the  age  and  character  to 
be  represented.    The  lips  in  all  are  of  a  bright  red. 


Piau  of  me  large  Theatre  at  Pompeii. 

In  the  eastern  j)ortico  of  the  Triangular  Forum  are  four 
entrances  to  different  parts  of  the  greater  theatre.    The  first 


THE  THEATRES. 


205 


two,  as  you  enter,  lead  into  a  large  circular  corridor  sur- 
rounding the  whole  cavea  ;  the  third  opens  on  an  area  behind 
the  scene,  from  which  there  is  a  communication  with  the 
orchestra  and  privileged  seats ;  the  fourth  led  down  a  long 
flight  of  steps,  at  the  bottom  of  which  you  turn,  on  the  right, 
into  the  soldiers'  quarter,  on  the  left,  into  the  area  already 
mentioned.  The  corridor  is  arched  over.  It  has  two  other 
entrances,  one  by  a  large  passage  from  the  east  side,  another 
from  a  smaller  passage  on  the  north.  Six  inner  doors,  called 
vomitoria,  opened  on  an  equal  number  of  staircases  which 
ran  down  to  the  first  praecinctio.  The  theatre  is  formed  upon 
the  slope  of  a  hill,  the  corridor  being  the  highest  part,  so 
that  the  audience  upon  entering  descended  at  once  to  their 
seats,  and  the  vast  staircases,  which  conducted  to  the  upj)er 
seats  of  the  theatres  and  amphitheatres  at  Kome,  were  saved. 
By  the  side  of  the  first  entrance  is  a  staircase  which  led  up 
to  the  women's  gallery  above  the  corridor  :  here  the  seats 
were  partitioned  into  compartments,  like  our  boxes.  The 
benches  were  about  one  foot  three  inches  high  and  two  feet 
four  inches  wide.  One  foot  three  inches  and  a  half  was 
allowed  to  each  spectator,  as  may  be  ascertained  in  one  part, 
where  the  divisions  are  marked  off  and  numbered.  There 
is  space  to  contain  about  five  tlipusand  persons.*  Here  the 
middle  classes  sat,  usually  upon  cushions  which  they  brought 
with  them  ;  the  men  of  rank  sat  in  the  orchestra  below,  on 
chairs  of  state  carried  thither  by  their  slaves.  Flanking  the 
orchestra,  and  elevated  considerably  above  it,  are  observable 
two  divisions,  appropriated,  one  perhaps  to  the  proconsul,  or 
duumvirs  and  their  officers,  the  other  to  the  vestal  virgins, 
or  to  the  use  of  the  person  who  gave  the  entertainments. 
This  is  the  more  likely,  because  in  the  smaller  theatre,  where 
these  boxes,  if  we  may  call  them  so,  are  also  found,  they  have 
a  communication  with  the  stage. 

'  This  theatre  appears  to  have  been  entirely  covered  with 
marble  ;  the  benches  of  the  cavea  were  of  marble,  the 
orchestra  was  of  marble,  the  scene  with  all  its  ornaments  was 
also  of  marble ;  and  yet  of  this  profusion  of  marble  only  a 
few  fragments  remain.  It  appears,  from  an  insci^iption  found 
in  it,  to  have  been  erected,  or  much  improved,  by  one 


*  Donaldson's  Pompeii. 


206 


POMPEII. 


Holconius  Eufus.  Upon  the  first  step  of  the  orchestra  was 
another  inscription,  composed  of  bronze  letters  let  into  the 
marble.    The  metal  has  been  carried  away,  but  the  cavities 


Flute-player,  from  a  Painting  at  Pompeii. 


in  the  marble  still  remain.  They  were  placed  so  as  partly 
to  encompass  a  statue,  and  run  thus  : — 

M.  HOLCOXIO.  M.  F.  RVFO.  II.  V.LD.  QVINQVIENS.  ITER. 
QVIXQ.  TRIB.  MIL,  A.  P.  FLAMEN.  AVG. 
PAIR.  COLON.  D.D. 


THE  THEATEESo 


207 


signifying,  tliat  the  colony  dedicated  this  to  its  patron, 
M.  Holconius  Eufus,  son  of  Marcus :  then  follow  his  titles. 


In  the  middle  of  this  inscription  is  a  vacant  space,  whore 
probahly  stood  the  statue  of  Holconius,  as  the  cramps,  by 


208 


POMPEII. 


which  something  was  fastened,  still  remain.  Or  possibly  it 
may  have  been  an  altar,  as  it  was  the  custom  among  the 
ancients  to  sacrifice  to  Bacchus  in  the  theatre.  The  view  on 
p.  207  represents  the  building  which  we  have  been  describing, 


Stone  Rings,  to  receive  the  Masts  of  the  Velarium,  from  the  Great  Theatre 
at  Pompeii. 

as  seen  from  one  of  the  entrances  leading  to  the  orchestra, 
having  on  the  right  hand  the  scene.  In  the  walJ  which 
supported  the  front  of  the  stage  are  seven  recesses,  similar 
to  those  discovered  in  the  fcJieatre  at  Herculancum.  These 


THE  THEATRES. 


209 


are  supposed  to  have  been  occupied  by  the  musicians.*  In 
front  is  the  entrance  to  the  orchestra ;  above  may  be  seen 
the  six  rows  of  steps  which  encircled  it ;  then  the  cavea,  de- 
spoiled of  its  marble,  but  still  showing  the  lines  of  benches 
and  stairs  dividing  them  into  cunei,  and  the  vomitoria,  or 
doors  of  entrance.  Still  higher  is  the  women's  gallery,  and 
above  that  the  external  wall,  which  never  was  entirely  buried, 
and  might  have  pointed  out  to  any  curious  observer  the  exact 
situation  of  Pompeii.  In  our  general  view,  the  reader  will 
observe  one  of  the  masts  which  sup})orted  the  velarium,  or 
awning,  restored  :  it  passed  through  two  rings  of  stone  pro- 
jecting from  the  internal  face  of  the  wall.  At  the  Coliseum 
these  masts  were  supported  by  consoles  on  the  outside. 

Eespccting  the  scene  we  have  little  to  add  to  what  we  have 
already  said.  Enough  remains  to  show  that  the  three  chief 
doors  were  situated  in  deep  recesses ;  those  at  the  sides 
rectangular,  the  central  one  circular.  In  front  of  the  latter 
were  two  columns.  Behind  it  is  the  postscenium.  From 
the  eastern  side  of  the  stage  a  covered  portico  led  into  the 
orchestra  of  the  small  theatre,  and  seems  to  have  been  meant 
as  a  communication  between  the  privileged  seats  of  either 
house,  for  the  convenience  of  those  who  were  entitled  to 
them.  At  the  end  of  this  portico  is  another  communication 
with  the  square  called  the  soldiers'  quarters. 

The  same  plan  and  the  same  disposition  of  parts  are  ob- 
servable in  the  small  theatre  sometimes  called  the  Odeum. 
In  form,  however,  it  is  different,  the  horns  of  the  semi- 
circle being  cut  off  by  lines  drawn  perpendicular  to  the 
front  of  the  stage.  Another,  and  a  more  remarkable  difference 
is,  that  it  appears  from  the  following  inscription  to  have  been 
permanently  roofed,  though  probably  only  with  wood : — 

C.  QVINCTIVS.  C.  F.  VALG. 
M.  PORCIVS.  M.  F. 
DVO.  VIK.  DEC.  DECK*. 
THFATRVxM.  TECTViAI. 
FAC.  LOCAR.  EIDEMQ.  PKOB. 

Caius  Quinctius  Valgus,  son  of  Caius,  and  Marcus  Porciu^ 

The  cut  on  p.  206  represents  a  musician  playing  on  the  double  liute.  It 
is  kept  close  to  his  mouth,  and  the  breath  hindered  from  escaping  by  a  baud, 
called  (pop^k^ov  by  the  Greeks,  capistrum  by  the  Latins. 

P 


210 


POMPEII. 


son  of  Marcus,  Duumvirs,  by  a  decree  of  the  Decurions  let 
out  the  covered  theatre  to  be  erected  by  contract,  and  the 
same  approved  it.  '  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected 
shortly  after  the  end  of  the  Social  War,  and  is  inferior  to  the 
other  theatre  in  decoration  and  construction.  It  is  built  of 
the  tufa  of  Nocera,  but  the  stairs  which  separate  the  cunei 


Plan  of  th3  Miia.ll  Theatre. 


are  of  a  very  hard  Vesuvian  lava,  well  fitted  to  withstand  the 
constant  action  of  ascending  and  descending  feet.  The  front 
wall  of  the  proscenium,  the  scene,  and  the  pavement  of  the 
orchestra,  were  entirely  of  marble  of  various  colours — African 
breccia,  giallo  antico,  and  a  purple  marble.  A  band  of  marble, 
Ftriped   grey  and  white,  runs  across  the  orchestra  from 


THE  THEATRES. 


211 


end  to  end  of  the  seats,  and  in  it  are  inlaid  letters  oi  bronze, 
eight  inches  and  a  half  long,  and  level  with  the  surface, 
forming  the  following  inscription  :— 

M.  OLCONIUS.  M.F.  VERUS.  IIVIR.  PRO.  LVDIS. 
Marcus  Olconius  Verus,  son  of  Marcus,  Duumvir  for  the 


frames  :"  signifying  probably  that  he  laid  down  the  pavement. 
W.thin  the  orchestra  itself  there  were  four  tiers  of  benches, 


212 


POMPEII. 


U}30ii  whicli  were  placed  the  bisellia,  or  chairs  of  state,  upon 
which  the  municipal  authorities  and  persons  of  distinction 
sat.  These  were  usually  made  of  bronze,  handsomely  orna- 
mented^,  and  supported  by  four  legs.  The  Eomans  always 
provided  conspicuous  and  distinct  seats  for  their  mag'strates. 
The  curule  chair,  composed  of  ivory,  was  peculiar  to  those  of 
the  metropolis ;  the  inhabitants  of  the  colonies  and  munici- 
palities placed  their  authorities  upon  a  large  chair,  capable  of 
containing  two  persons,  though  only  one  occupied  it,  whence 
this  seat  of  honour  was  called  bisellium.  An  inscription 
found  at  Nocera  tells  us  that  the  perpetual  duumvirate  was 
conferred  on  one  M.  \  irtius ;  and  beneath  is  carved  tlie 
bisellium,  with  its  footstool  (scabellum),  and  two  lictors  at 
the  side,  as  the  insignia  of  the  duumvirate.  Two  inscriptions 
in  the  Street  of  Tombs  lead\is  to  infer  that  this  distinction 
was  highly  prized  by  the  ancients,  and  only  given  to  persons 
of  eminent  services  or  distinguished  merit.  Under  both  of 
them,  bisellia,  with  their  footstools  and  cushions,  are  carved. 
These  bisellia  were  of  several  forms  and  different  heights, 
according  to  the  places  for  which  they  were  intended :  the 
highest,  probably,  were  meant  for  the  highest  authorities; 
but  high  and  low  they  had  footstools,  of  one,  two,  three,  or 
even  more  steps.  Two  have  been  found  at  Pompeii,  of  one 
of  which  we  give  an  engraving.  In  form  and  ornament  they 
are  much  alike,  but  they  are  very  unequal  in  height.  Both 
are  made  of  bronze  inlaid  with  silver.  In  execution  and 
elegance  they  are  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  anything  of  the 
kind  in  modern  art,  and  in  the  workmanship  an  extraordinary 
finish  and  accuracy  is  visible.  These  were  placed,  as  we 
1  ave  said,  on  the  four  ranges  of  steps  within  the  orchestra, 
vv^hich  are  not  so  deep  as  the  steps  of  the  cavea,  nor  have  they 
places  hollowed  out  for  the  feet,  to  defend  the  backs  of  the 
inferior  row  of  spectators,  the  different  arrangement  of  seats 
making  this  unnecessary. 

In  the  view  which  is  given  of  th's  small  theatre,  the 
reader  will  plainly  see  the  different  j)arts  of  the  building. 
Behind  the  four  benches  of  the  orchestra  rises  a  high  parapet, 
which  separated  the  privileged  and  unprivileged  seats.  Be- 
]iind  this  ran  the  prascinctio  or  landing,  accessible  from 
below  by  the  four  curved  steps  at  each  end  of  the  orchestra. 
Two  of  the  stairs  are  visible,  and  a  complete  c uncus  included 


THE  THEATRES. 


213 


between  them.  Above  tbe  cavea  is  the  gallery  for  women. 
The  cavea  contained  seventeen  rows  of  seats.   The  only- 


direct  acre  s  to  it  is  by  a  passage  behind,  also  communi- 
cating with  the  orchestra  of  the  large  theatre,  which  opens 


214 


POMPEII. 


into  a  circular  corridor,  where  are  the  vomitoria  and  stairs 
to  ascend  to  the  gallery.  It  has  been  computed  that  there 
is  accommodation  for  fifteen  hundred  persons.  The  ends  of 
the  parapet  are  ornamented  with  winged  grifl&ns'  legs. 
Behind,  two  sculptured  figures,  stoutly  proportioned,  appear 
to  support  the  side  wall  of  the  cavea,  upon  which  ponderous 
bronze  candelabra  formerly  stood.  To  the  left  are  the  stage, 
scene,  and  postscenium.  The  centre  door,  or  valvse  regiae, 
and  one  of  the  side  ones,  are  visible,  and  the  wall  of  the  post- 
scenium closes  the  view  behind.  The  cavity  running  along 
the  front  of  the  stage  was  most  likely  meant  to  hold  the 
curtain,  which,  as  we  have  said,  was  raised,  not  let  down, 
when  it  was  necessary  to  conceal  the  scene.  The  marble 
facings  of  this  part  of  the  building  seem  to  have  been  carried 
away  after  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius.  In  front,  there  appear 
two  entrances,  one  to  the  pulpitum  or  stage,  the  other  to 
the  orchestra :  between  them  is  a  flight  of  steps  which  led 
up  to  the  chamber  or  box  above  mentioned,  as  set  apart  pro- 
bably for  the  person  who  celebrated  the  games. 


215 


CHAPTER  YIII. 

THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 

Some  hundred  yards  from  the  theatres,  in  the  south-eastern 
angle  of  the  walls  of  the  town,  stands  the  amphitheatre. 
*  Although,  perhaps,  of  Etruscan  origin,  the  exhibitions  of 
the  amphitheatre  are  so  peculiarly  Eoman,  and  Pompeii  con- 
tains so  many  mementos  of  them,  that  a  detailed  account 
of  them  will  not  perhaps  be  misplaced.  At  an  early 
period,  a.  u.  490,  the  practice  of  compelling  human  beings 
to  fight  for  the  amusement  of  spectators  was  introduced  ; 
and  twelve  years  later  the  capture  of  several  elephants  in  the 
first  Punic  war  proved  the  means  of  introducing  the  chase, 
or  rather  the  slaughter,  of  wild  beasts  into  the  Eoman  circus. 
The  taste  for  these  spectacles  increased  of  course  with  its  in- 
dulgence, and  their  magnificence  with  the  wealth  of  the  city 
and  the  increasing  facility  and  inducement  to  practise 
bribery  which  was  offered  by  the  increased  extent  of  pro- 
vinces subject  to  Rome.  It  was  not  however  until  the  last 
period  of  the  republic,  or  rather  until  the  domination  of 
the  emperors  had  collected  into  one  channel  the  tributary 
wealth  which  previously  was  divided  among  a  numerous 
aristocracy,  that  buildings  were  erected  solely  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  gladiatorial  shows ;  buildings  entirely  be- 
yond the  compass  of  a  subject's  wealth,  and  in  which  perhaps 
the  magnificence  of  imperial  Rome  is  most  amply  displayed. 
Numerous  examples  scattered  throughout  her  empire,  in  a 
more  or  less  advanced  state  of  decay,  still  attest  the  luxury 
and  solidity  of  their  construction ,  while  at  Rome  the  Coli- 
seum asserts  the  pre-eminent  splendour  of  the  metropolis — 
a  monument  surpassed  in  magnitude  by  the  Pyramids  alone, 
and  as  superior  to  them  in  skill  and  varied  contrivance  of 
design  as  to  other  buildings  in  its  gigantic  magnitude. 

The  Greek  word,  which  by  a  slight  alteration  of  its  termi- 
nation we  render  amphitlioatre,  signifies  a  theatre,  or  place 
of  spectacles,  forming  a  continuous  inclosure,  in  opposition 
to  the  simple  theatre,  which,  as  we  have  said,  was  seniicir- 


216  POMPEII. 

cular,  but  with  the  seats  usually  continued  somewhat  in 
advance  of  the  diameter  of  the  semicircle.    The  first  amphi- 


theatre seems  to  have  been  that  of  Curio,  consisting  of  two 
moveable  theatres,  which  could  be  placed  face  to  face  or  back 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


to  back,  according  to  the  species  of  amusement  for  which  they 
were  required.  Usually,  gladiatorial  shows  were  given  in  the 
Forum,  and  the  chase  and  combats  of  wild  beasts  exhibited  in 
the  Circus,  where  once,  when  Pompey  was  celebrating  games, 
some  enraged  elephants  broke  through  the  barrier  which  sepa- 
rated them  from  the  spectators.  This  circumstance,  together 
with  the  unsuitableness  of  the  Circus  for  such  sports,  from  its 
being  divided  into  two  compartments  by  the  spina,  a  low 
wall  surmounted  by  pillars,  obelisks,  and  other  ornamental 
erections,  as  well  as  from  its  disproportionate  length,  which 
rendered  it  ill  adapted  to  afford  a  general  view  to  all  the 
spectators,  determined  Julius  Caesar,  in  his  dictatorship, 
to  construct  a  wooden  theatre  in  the  Campus  Martins, 
built  especially  for  huntiug  {Oearpov  KwqyeTiKor),  "  which 
was  called  amphitheatre  [apparently  the  first  use  of  the  word] 
because  it  was  encompassed  by  circular  seats  without  a 
scene."*  The  first  permanent  amphitheatre  was  built  partly 
of  stone  and  partly  of  wood,  by  St  itilius  Taurus,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  Augustus,  wlio  was  passionately  fond  of  these 
sports,  especially  of  the  hunting  of  rare  beasts.  This  was 
bmiit  during  the  reign  of  Nero,  and  though  restored,  fell 
short  of  the  wishes  of  Vespasian,  who  commenced  the  vast 
structure — completed  by  his  son  Titus — called  the  Flavian 
Amphitheatre,  and  subsequently  the  Coliseum.  The  expense 
of  this  building  it  is  said  would  have  sufiiced  to  erect  a  capital 
city,  and,  if  wo  may  credit  Dion,  9000  wild  beasts  were 
dcstro^^ed  in  its  dedication.  Eutropius  restricts  the  number 
to  5000.  When  the  hunting  was  over  the  arena  was  filled 
with  water,  and  a  sea-fight  ensued. 

The  construction  of  these  buildings  so  much  resembles 
the  construction  of  theatres,  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
describe  them  at  any  great  length.  Without,  they  usually 
presented  to  the  view  an  oval  wall,  composed  of  two  or  more 
stories  of  arcades,  sai:)ported  by  piers  of  different  orders  of 
architecture  adorned  with  pilasters  or  attached  pillars. 
Within,  an  equal  number  of  stories  of  galleries  gave  access 
to  the  spectators  at  different  elevations,  and  the  inclined 
plane  of  the  seats  was  ako  supported  upon  piers  and  vaults, 
so  that  the  ground  plan  presented  a  number  of  circular  rows 


*  Dion  Cas.sius,  xliii. 


218 


POMPEII. 


of  piers,  arranged  in  radii  converging  t3  tlie  centre  of  the 
arena.  A  suitable  number  of  doors  opened  upon  the  ground 
floor,  and  passages  from  thence,  intersecting  the  circular 
passages  between  the  piers,  gave  an  easy  access  to  every 
part  of  the  building.  Sometimes  a  gallery  encompassed  the 
whole,  and  served  as  a  common  access  to  all  the  stairs  which 
led  to  the  upper  stories.  This  was  the  case  in  the  amphi- 
theatre at  Nismes.  Sometimes  each  staircase  had  its  distinct 
communication  from  without :  this  was  the  case  at  Verona. 
The  arrangement  of  the  seats  was  the  same  as  in  theatres ; 
they  were  divided  horizontally  by  praecinctiones,  and  verti- 
cally into  cunei  by  staircases.  The  scene  and  apparatus  of 
the  stage  was  of  course  wanting,  and  its  place  occupied  by 
an  oval  area,  called  arena,  from  the  sand  w^ith  which  it  w^as 
sprinkled,  to  absorb  the  blood  shed,  and  give  a  firmer  footing 
than  that  afforded  by  a  stone  pavement.  It  was  sunk  twelve 
or  fifteen  feet  below  the  lowest  range  of  seats,  to  secure  the 
spectators  from  injury,  and  was  besides  fenced  with  round 
w^ooden  rollers  turning  in  their  sockets,  placed  horizontally 
against  the  wall,  such  as  the  reader  may  have  observed  placed 
on  low  gates  to  prevent  dogs  from  climbing  over,  and  with 
strong  nets.  In  the  time  of  Nero  these  nets  were  knotted 
with  amber.*  and  the  Emperor  Carinus  caused  them  to  be 
ma  le  of  golden  cord  or  wire.f  Sometimes,  for  more  com- 
plete security,  ditches,  called  eiiripi,  surrounded  the  arena. 
This  was  first  done  by  Caesar,  as  a  protection  to  the  people 
against  the  elephants  which  he  exhibited,  that  animal  being 
supposed  to  be  particularly  afraid  of  water.  J  The  arena  was 
sometimes  spread  with  pounded  stone.  Caligula,  in  a  fit  of 
extravagance,  used  chrysocoUa ;  and  Nero,  to  surpass  him, 
caused  the  brilliant  red  of  cinnabar  to  be  mixed  with  it. 

In  the  centre  of  the  arena  was  an  altar  dedicated  some- 
times to  Diana  or  Pluto,  more  commonly  to  Jupiter  Latiaris, 
the  protector  of  Latium,  in  honour  of  whom  human  sacrifices 
were  offered.  Passages  are  to  be  found  in  ancient  writers, 
from  w^hich  it  is  inferred  that  the  games  of  the  amphitheatre 
were  usually  opened  by  sacrificing  a  best iar ins,  one  of  those 
gladiators  whose  profession  was  to  combat  wild  beasts,  in 
honour  of  this  bio :>dthirsty  deity. §     Beneath  the  arena  duns 

*  Pliny,  lib.  x.wv.  f  Calparnius. 

J  Pliny,  lib.  viii.  §  Lipsius,  De  Ampliitheatro,  cap.  iv. 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


219 


are  supposed  to  have  been  constructed  to  contain  wild  beasts. 
At  tbe  Coliseum  numerous  underground  buildings  are  said 
by  Fulvius  to  have  existed,  which  he  supposed  to  be  sewers 
constructed  to  drain  and  cleanse  the  building.*  Others 
with  more  probability  have  su^Dposed  them  to  be  the  dens  of 
wild  beasts.  Immense  accommodation  was  requisite  to  con- 
tain the  thousands  of  animals  which  were  slaughtered  upon 
solemn  occasions,  but  no  great  provision  need  have  been 
made  to  carry  off  the  rainwater  which  fell  upon  the  five  or 
six  acres  com2)rised  within  the  walls  of  the  building.  Others 
again  have  supposed  them  formed  to  introduce  the  vast 
bodies  of  water  by  which  the  arena  was  suddenly  transformed 
into  a  lake  when  imitations  of  naval  battles  were  exhibited. 
In  1813  the  arena  was  excavated,  and  numerous  substructures 
discovered,  which  have  since  been  filled  up,  the  ground 
having  become  a  swamp  for  want  of  drainage.  Doors  pierced 
in  the  wall  which  supported  the  j^odium  communicated  with 
these,  or  with  other  places  of  confinement  beneath  the  part 
allotted  to  the  audience,  which  being  thrown  open,  vast 
numbers  of  animals  could  be  introduced  at  once.  Vopiscus 
tells  us  that  a  thousand  ostriches,  a  thousand  stags,  and  a 
thousand  boars  were  thrown  into  the  arena  at  once  by  the 
Emperor  Probus.  Sometimes,  to  astonish,  and  attract  by 
novelty,  the  arena  was  converted  into  a  wood.  "  Probus," 
says  the  same  author,  exhibited  a  splendid  hunting  match, 
after  the  following  manner.  Large  trees  torn  up  by  the  roots 
were  firmly  connected  by  beams,  and  fixed  upright ;  then 
earth  was  spread  over  the  roots,  so  that  the  whole  circus 
was  planted  to  resemble  a  wood,  and  oil'ered  us  the  gratifi- 
cation of  a  green  scene. "| 

The  same  order  of  precedence  was  observed  as  at  the 
theatre — senators,  knights,  and  commons  having  each  their 
appropriate  place.  'J^o  the  former  was  set  apart  the  podium, 
a  broad  precinction  or  platform  which  ran  immediately  round 
the  arena.  Hither  they  brought  the  curule  seats  or  bisellia, 
described  in  speaking  of  the  theatres  of  Pompeii ;  and  here 
was  the  suggestus,  a  covered  seat  appropriated  to  the  em- 
peror. It  is  supposed  that  in  this  part  of  the  building  there 
were  also  seats  of  honour  for  the  exhibitor  of  the  games  and 

*  De  Mirabilibus  Uibis,  lib.  i. 
+  In  Piobo. 


220 


POMPEII. 


i 


tlie  vestal  virgins.  If  the  podium  wp.s  insufficient  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  senators,  some  of  the  adjoining  seats 
were  taken  for  their  use.  Next  to  the  senators  sat  the 
knights,  who  seem  here,  as  in  the  theatre,  to  have  had  four- 
teen rows  set  apart  for  them  ;  and  with  them  sat  the  civil 
and  military  tribunes.  Behind  were  the  popularia,  or  seats 
of  the  plebeians.  Different  tribes  had  particular  cunei 
allotted  to  them.  There  were  also  some  further  internal 
arrangements,  for  Augustus  separated  married  from  unmarried 
men,  and  assigned  a  separate  cuneus  to  youths,  near  whom 
their  tutors  were  stationed.  Women  were  stationed  in  a 
gallery,  and  attendants  and  servants  in  the  highest  gallery. 
The  general  direction  of  the  amphitheatre  was  under  the 
care  of  an  officer  named  villicus  amphitheatn.  Officers  called 
locarii  attended  to  the  distribution  of  the  people,  and  removed 
any  person  from  a  seat  which  he  was  not  entitled  to  hold. 

We  may  notice,  as  a  refinemeu^t  of  luxury,  that  concealed 
conduits  were  carried  throughout  these  buildings,  from  which 
scented  liquids  were  scattered  over  the  audience.  Sometimes 
the  statues  which  ornamented  them  were  applied  to  this  pur- 
pose, and  seemed  to  sweat  perfumes  through  minute  holes, 
with  which  the  pipes  that  traversed  them  were  pierced.  It 
is  this  to  which  Lucan  alludes  in  the  following  lines  :  — 

 As  when  mighty  Rome's  spectators  meet 

In  the  full  theatie';s  capacious  seat, 
At  once,  by  secret  pipes  and  channels  fed, 
Kich  tinctures  gush  from  every  antique  head  ; 
At  once  ten  thousand  safFi  on  currents  flow, 
And  rain  their  odours  on  the  crowd  below. 

Rowe's  Lucan,  book  ix. 

Saffron  was  the  material  usually  employed  for  these  refresh- 
ing showers.  The  dried  herb  was  infused  in  wine,  more 
especially  in  sweet  wine.  Balsams  and  the  more  costly  un- 
guents were  sometimes  employed  for  the  same  purpose. 

Another  contrivance,  too  remarkable  to  be  omitted  in  a 
general  account  of  amphitheatres,  is  tlie  awning  by  which 
spectators  were  protected  from  the  overpowering  heat  of  an 
Italian  sun.  This  was  called  Velum,  or  Velarium  ;  and  it 
has  affiu'dcd  matter  for  a  good  deal  of  controversy,  how  a 
temporary  covering  could  be  extended  over  the  vast  ar(;as  of 
these  buildings.     S(mietliiiig  of  the  kind  was  absolutely 


THE  AMPHITHEATKE. 


221 


necessary,  for  tlie  spectacle  often  lasted  for  many  hours,  and 
when  anything  extraordinary  was  expected  the  people  went 
in  crowds  before  daylight  to  obtain  places,  and  some  even 
at  midnight.  The  Campanians  first  invented  the  means  of 
stretching  awnings  over  their  theatres,  by  means  of  cords 
stretched  across  the  cavea  and  attached  to  masts  which 
passed  through  perf()ratGd  blocks  of  stone  deeply  bedded 
in  the  wall.  Quintus  Catulus  introduced  them  at  Eome 
when  he.  celebrated  games  at  the  dedication  of  the  Capitol, 
A.  u.  684.  Lentulus  Spinther,  a  contemporary  of  Cicero,  first 
erected  fine  linen  awnings  (carbasina  vela),  Julius  Caesar 
covered  over  the  whole  Forum  Eomanum,  and  the  Via  Sacra, 
from  his  own  house  to  the  Capitol,  which  was  esteemed  even 
more  wonderful  than  his  gladiatorial  exhibition.*  Dio  men- 
tions a  report  that  these  awnings  were  of  silk,  but  he  speaks 
doubtfully ;  and  it  is  scarcely  probable  that  even  Caesar's 
extravagance  would  have  carried  him  so  far.  Silk  at  that 
time  was  not  manufactured  at  Rome  ;  and  we  learn  from 
Vopiscus,  that  even  in  the  time  of  Aurelian  the  raw  material 
was  worth  its  weight  in  gold.  Lucretius,  speaking  of  the 
effect  of  coloured  bodies  upon  transmitted  light,  has  a  fine 
passage  illustrative  of  the  magnificence  displayed  in  this 
branch  of  theatrical  decoration. 

This  the  crowd  surveys 
Oft  in  the  theatre,  whose  awning^s  broad, 
Bedecked  with  crimson,  yellow,  or  the  tint 
Of  steel  cerulean,  from  their  fluted  heights 
Wave  tremulous  ;  and  o'er  the  scene  beneath, 
Each  maible  statue,  and  the  rising  rows 
Of  rank  and  beauty,  fiiug  their  tint  superb, 
While  as  the  walls  with  ampler  shade  repel 
The  garish  noonbeam,  every  object  round 
Laughs  with  a  deeper  dye,  and  wears  profuse 
A  lovelier  lustre,  ravished  from  the  day.f 

Wool  however  was  the  most  common  material,  and  the  velaria 
made  in  Apulia  were  most  esteemed,  on  account  of  the  white- 
ness of  the  wool. 

*  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xix.  6. 

•j*  Lucretius,  iv.  73;  Good's  tianslation.  In  the  seventh  line,  rank  and 
beauty  "  is  an  interpolation  of  the  tj-^nslator's,  taken  from  the  practice  of  the 
modern  theatre.  In  the  Roman  theatre  they  were  as  widely  separated  as  arc 
the  boxes  and  one  shilling  galleiy  in  our  own'. 


222 


POMPEII 


Those  wlio  are  not  acquainted  by  experience  with  the 
difficulty  of  giving  stability  to  tents  of  large  dimensions, 
and  the  greater  difficulty  of  erecting  awnings,  when,  on  ac- 
count of  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended,  no  support 
can  be  applied  in  the  centre,  may  not  fully  estimate  the 
difficulty  of  erecting  and  managing  these  velaria.  Strength 
was  necessary,  both  for  the  cloth  itself  and  for  the  cords 
which  strained  and  supported  it,  or  the  whole  would  have 
been  shivered  by  the  first  gust  of  wind,  and  strength  could 
not  be  obtained  without  great  weight.  Many  of  our  readers 
probably  are  not  aware,  that  however  short  and  light  a  string 
may  be,  no  amount  of  tension  api)lied  horizontally  will 
stretch  it  into  a  line  perfectly  and  mathematically  straight. 
Practically  the  deviation  is  imperceptible  where  the  power 
applied  is  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  weight  and  length 
of  the  string.  Still  it  exists  ;  and  to  take  a  common  example, 
the  reader  probably  never  saw  a  clothes-line  stretched  out, 
though  neither  the  weight  nor  length  of  the  string  are  consi- 
derable, without  the  middle  being  visibly  lower  than  the  ends. 
When  the  line  is  at  once  long  and  heavy,  an  enormous  power 
is  required  to  suspend  it  even  in  a  curve  between  two  points  ; 
and  the  amount  of  tension,  and  difficulty  of  finding  materials 
able  to  withstand  it,  are  the  only  obstacles  to  constructing 
chain  bridges  which  should  be  thousands,  instead  of  hundreds 
of  feet  in  length.  In  these  erections  the  piers  are  raised  to 
a  considerable  height,  that  a  sufficient  depth  may  be  allowed 
for  the  curve  of  the  chains  without  depressing  the  roadway. 
Ten  times — a  hundred  times  the  power  which  was  applied  to 
strain  them  into  that  shape  would  not  suffice  to  bring  them 
even  so  near  to  a  horizontal  line  but  that  the  most  inaccurate 
and  unobservant  eye  should  at  once  detect  the  inequality 
in  their  level;  and  the  chains  themselves  would  probably 
give  way  before  such  a  force  as  this  could  be  applied  to  them. 
The  least  diameter  of  the  Coliseum  is  nearly  equal  in  length 
to  the  Menai  bridge ;  and  if  the  labour  of  stretching  cords 
over  the  one  seems  small  in  comparison  with  that  of  raising 
the  ponderous  chains  of  the  other,  w^e  may  take  into  consi- 
deration the  weight  of  cloth  which  those  cords  supported,  and 
the  increase  of  difficulties  arising  fr-om  the  action  of  the 
wind  on  so  extensive  a  surface.  In  boisterous  weather,  as 
we  learn  from  Martial  and  other  authors,  these  difficulties 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


223 


were  so  great  that  the  velum  could  not  be  spread.  When 
this  was  the  case  the  Eomans  used  broad  hats,  or  a  sort  of 
parasol,  which  was  called  umhella  or  imhraculum,  from  umbra, 
shade.*  We  may  add,  in  conclusion,  that  Suetonius  mentions 
as  one  of  Caligula's  tyrannical  extravagances,  that  sometimes 
at  a  show  of  gladiators,  when  the  sun's  heat  was  most  intense, 
he  would  cause  the  awning  to  be  drawn  back,  and  at  the  same 
time  forbid  any  person  to  leave  the  place. 

The  difficulty  of  the  undertaking  has  given  rise  to  con- 
siderable discussion  as  to  the  means  by  which  the  Eomans 
contrived  to  extend  the  velum  at  such  a  height  over  so  great 
a  surface,  and  to  manage  it  at  pleasure.  Sailors  were  em- 
ployed in  the  service,  for  the  Emperor  Commodus,  who 
piqued  himself  on  his  gladiatorial  skill,  and  used  to  fight  in 
the  arena,  believing  himself  mocked  by  the  servile  crowd  of 
spectators,  when  once  they  liailcd  liim  with  divine  honours, 
gave  order  for  their  slaughter  by  the  sailors  who  were 
managing  the  veils.j  Concerning  the  method  of  working 
them  no  information  has  been  handed  down.  It  is  evident 
however  that  they  were  supported  by  masts  which  rose  above 
the  summit  of  the  walls.  A  view  of  one  of  these,  with  the 
method  of  fastening  it,  has  been  given  in  the  chapter  on 
theatres.  Near  the  top  of  the  outer  wall  of  the  Coliseum 
there  are  240  consoles,  or  projecting  blocks  of  stone,  in 
which  holes  are  cut  to  receive  the  ends  of  spars,  which  ran 
up  through  holes  cut  in  the  cornice  to  some  height  above  the 
greatest  elevation  of  the  building.  A  sufficient  number  of 
lirra  points  of  support  at  equal  intervals  was  thus  procured  ; 
and  this  difficulty  being  overcome,  the  next  was  to  stretch  as 
tight  as  possible  the  larger  ropes,  upon  which  the  whole 
covering  depended  for  its  stability. 

The  games  to  which  these  buildings  were  especially  de- 
voted were,  as  we  have  already  hinted,  twofold — those  in 
which  wild  beasts  were  introduced,  to  combat  either  with 

*  The  following  epigrams  of  Martial  will  illustrate  these  points: — 

In  Pompeiano  tectus  spe(itabo  theatre, 
Nam  popLilo  ventus  vela  negare  solet. 

Acc'ipe  quae  nimios  vincant  nmbracula  soles: 
Sit  licet  et  ventus,  te  tua  vela  tegent. 

t  Lampridius. 


POMPEII. 


each  other  or  with  men,  and  those  in  which  men  fought  with 
men.  Under  the  general  term  of  gladiators  are  comprised 
all  who  fought  in  the  arena,  though  those  who  pitted  their 
skill  against  the  strength  and  lerocity  of  savage  animals 
were  peculiarly  distinguished  by  the  name  of  hestiarii.  In 
general  these  unhappy  persons  were  slaves  or  condemned 
criminals,  who  by  adopting  this  profession  purchased  an  un- 
certain prolongation  of  existence,  but  freemen  sometimes 
gained  a  desperate  subsistence  by  thus  hazarding  their  lives ; 
and  in  the  decline  of  Rome,  knights,  senators,  and  even  the 
emperors  sometimes  appeared  in  the  arena,  at  the  instigation 
of  a  vulgar  and  degrading  thirst  for  popular  applause. 

The  origin  of  these  bloody  entertainments  may  be  found 
in  the  earliest  records  of  profane  history  and  the  earliest 
stages  of  society.  Among  half-civilized  or  savage  nations, 
both  ancient  and  modern,  we  find  it  custom.ary  after  a  battle 
to  sacrifice  prisoners  of  war  in  honoiu^  of  those  chiefs  who 
have  been  slain.  Thus  Achilles  offers  up  twelve  young  Tro- 
jans to  the  ghost  of  Patroclus,*  and  similar  examples  may  be 
easily  found  among  our  northern  ancestors  and  the  indigenous 
American  tribes  of  the  present  day.  In  course  of  time  it 
became  usual  to  sacrifice  slaves  at  the  funeral  of  all  persons 
of  condition  ;  and  either  for  the  amusement  of  the  spectators, 
or  because  it  appeared  barbarous  to  massacre  defenceless 
men,  arms  were  placed  in  their  hands,  and  they  were  incited 
to  save  their  own  lives  by  the  death  of  those  w^ho  were  op- 
posed to  them.  In  later  times,  the  furnishing  these  unhappy 
men  became  matter  of  speculation,  and  they  were  carefully 
trained  to  the  profession  of  arms,  to  increase  the  reputation 
and  popularity  of  the  contractor  who  provided  them.  This 
person  was  called  lanista  by  the  Eomans.  At  first  these 
sports  weve  performed  about  the  funeral  pile  of  the  deceased, 
or  near  his  sepulchre,  in  consonance  with  the  idea  of  sacrifice 
in  vvhich  they  originated ;  but  as  they  became  more  splendid, 
and  ceased  to  be  peculiarly  appropriated  to  such  occasions, 
they  were  removed,  originally  to  th^  Forum,  and  afterwards 
to  the  Circus  and  amphitheatres. 

Gladiators  were  first  exhibited  at  Eome,  a.u.  488,  by 
M.  and  D.  Brutus,  on  occasion  of  the  death  of  their  father. 


*  11.  xxiii.  175. 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


225 


This  show  consisted  only  of  three  pairs.  A.cr.  537,  the 
three  sons  of  M.  ^milius  Lepidus,  the  augur,  entertained 
the  people  in  the  Forum  with  eleven  pair,  and  the  show 
lasted  three  days.  A.u.  552,  the  three  sons  of  M.  Valerius 
Lsovinus  exhibited  twenty-five  pairs.  And  thus  these  shows 
increased  in  number  and  frequency,  and  the  taste  for  them 
strengthened  with  its  gratification,  until  not  only  the  heir  of 
any  rich  or  eminent  person  lately  deceased,  but  all  the  prin- 
cipal magistrates,  and  the  candidates  for  magistracies,  pre- 
sented the  people  with  shows  of  this  nature  to  gain  their 
favour  and  support.  ^ 

This  taste  was  not  without  its  inconveniences  and  dangers. 
Men  of  rank  and  political  importance  kept  families^  as  they 
were  called,  of  gladiators — desperadoes  ready  to  execute  any 
command  of  their  master  ;  and  towards  the  fall  of  the  repub- 
lic, when  party  rage  scrupled  not  to  have  recourse  to  open 
violence,  questions  of  the  highest  import  were  debated  in  the 
streets  of  the  city  by  the  most  despised  of  its  slaves.  In  the 
conspiracy  of  Catiline  so  much  danger  was  apprehended  from 
them,  that  particular  measures  were  taken  to  prevent  their 
joining  the  disafiected  party;  an  event  the  more  to  be  feared 
because  of  the  desperate  war  in  which  they  had  engaged  the 
republic  a  few  years  before,  under  the  command  of  the  cele- 
brated Spartacus.  At  a  much  later  period,  at  the  triumph  of 
Probus,  A.D.  281,  about  fourscore  gladiators  exhibited  a  simi- 
lar courage.  Disdaining  to  shed  their  blood  for  the  amuse- 
ment of  a  cruel  people,  they  killed  their  keepers,  broke  out 
from  the  place  of  their  confinement,  and  filled  the  streets  of 
Rome  with  blood  and  confusion.  After  an  obstinate  resist- 
ance they  were  cut  to  pieces  by  the  regular  troops.  - 

The  oath  which  they  took  upon  entering  the  service  is  pre- 
served by  Petronius,  and  is  couched  in  these  terms :  "  We 
swear,  after  the  dictation  of  Eumolpus,  to  suffer  death  by  fire, 
bonds,  stripes,  and  the  sword  ;  and  whatever  else  Eumolpus 
may  command,  as  true  gladiators  we  bind  ourselves  body 
and  mind  to  our  master's  service." 

From  slaves  and  freedmen  the  inhuman  sport  at  length 
spread  to  persons  of  rank  and  fortune,  insomuch  that  Augus- 
tus was  ol)liged  to  issue  an  edict,  that  none  of  senatorial 
rank  should  become  gladiators ;  and  soon  after  he  laid  a 
similar  restraint  on   the  knights.     Succeeding  emperors, 

Q 


226 


POMPEII. 


according  to  their  characters,  encouraged  or  endeavoured  to 
suppress  this  degrading  taste.  Nero  is  related  to  have 
brought  upwards  of  four  hundred  senators  and  six  hundred 
knights  upon  the  arena ;  and  in  some  of  his  exhibitions  even 
women  of  quality  contended  publicly.  The  excellent  Marcus 
Aurelius  not  only  retrenched  the  enormous  expenses  of  these 
amusements,  but  ordered  that  gladiators  should  contend  only 
with  blunt  weapons.  But  they  were  not  abolished  until  some 
time  after  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  Constantino 
published  the  first  edict  which  condemned  the  shedding  of 
human  blood,  and  ordered  tha^  criminals  condemned  to 
death  should  rather  be  sent  to  the  mines  than  reserved  for 
the  service  of  the  amphitheatre.  In  the  reign  of  Honorius, 
when  he  was  celebrating  with  magnificent  games  the  retreat 
of  the  Goths  and  the  deliverance  of  Eome,  an  Asiatic  monk, 
by  name  Telemachus,  had  the  boldness  to  descend  into  the 
arena  to  part  the  combatants.  "  The  Komans  were  provoked 
by  this  interruption  of  their  pleasures,  and  the  rash  monk 
was  overwhelmed  under  a  shower  of  stones.  But  the  mad- 
ness of  the  people  soon  subsided  ;  they  respected  the  memory 
of  Telemachus,  who  had  deserved  the  honours  of  martyrdom, 
and  they  submitted  without  a  murmur  to  the  laws  of  Hono- 
rius, which  abolished  for  ever  the  human  sacrifices  of  the  am- 
phitheatre."* This  occurred  a.d.  404.  It  was  not  however 
until  the  year  500  that  the  practice  was  finally  and  com- 
pletely abolished  by  Theodoric. 

Some  time  before  the  day  appointed  for  the  spectacle,  he 
who  gave  it  (editor)  published  bills  containing  the  name  and 
ensigns  of  the  gladiators,  for  each  of  them  had  his  own  distinc- 
tive badge,  and  stating  also  how  many  were  to  fight,  and  how^ 
long  the  show  would  last.  It  appears,  that  like  our  itinerant 
showmen,  they  sometimes  exhibited  paintings  of  what  the 
sports  were  to  contain.  On  the  appointed  day  the  gladiators 
marched  in  procession  with  much  ceremony  into  the  amphi- 
theatre. They  then  separated  into  pairs,  as  they  had  been 
previously  matched.  The  annexed  engraving,  taken  from  a 
picture  on  the  wall  of  the  amphitheatre  at  Pompeii,  seems  to 
represent  the  beginning  of  a  combat.  In  the  middle  stands 
the  arbiter  of  the  fight,  marking  out  with  a  long  stick  the 
space  for  the  combatants.    On  his  right  stands  a  gladiator 

*  Gibbon,  chnp.  xxx. 


228 


POMPEII. 


only  half  armed,  to  wliom  two  others  are  bringing  a  sword 
and  helmet.  On  the  left  another  gladiator,  also  only  partly 
armed,  sounds  the  trumpet  for  the  commencement  of  the 
fight ;  whilst  behind  him  two  companions,  at  the  foot  of  one 
of  the  Victories  w^hich  enclose  the  scene,  are  preparing  his 
helmet  and  shield.  At  first,  however,  they  contended  only 
with  staves,  called  nides,  or  with  blunted  weapons ;  but  when 
warmed  and  inspirited  by  the  pretence  of  battle,  they  changed 
their  weapons,  and  advanced  at  the  sound  of  trumjDets  to  the 
real  strife.  The  conquered  looked  to  the  people  or  to  the 
emperor  for  life ;  his  antagonist  had  no  power  to  grant  or  to 
refuse  it ;  but  if  the  spectators  were  dissatisfied  and  gave  the 
signal  of  death,  he  was  obliged  to  become  the  executioner  of 
their  will.  This  signal  was  the  turning  down  the  thumbs; 
as  is  well  known.  If  any  showed  signs  of  fear,  their  deatli 
was  certain ;  if  on  the  other  hand  they  waited  the  fatal  stroke 
with  intrepidity,  the  j^eople  generally  relented.  But  fear 
and  want  of  spii'it  were  of  very  rare  occurrence,  insomuch 
that  Cicero  more  than  once  proposes  the  principle  of  honour 
which  actuated  gladiators  as  an  admii'able  model  of  constancy 
and  courage,  by  which  he  intended  to  animate  himself  and 
others  to  suffer  everything  in  defence  of  the  commonwealth. 

The  bodies  of  the  slain  were  dragged  with  a  hook  through 
a  gate  called  Libitinensis,  the  Gate  of  Death,  to  the  sjpoUa- 
rium.  The  victor  was  rewarded  with  a  sum  of  money,  contri- 
buted by  the  spectators  or  bestowed  from  the  treasuiy,  or  a 
palm-branch,  or  a  garland  of  palm  ornamented  with  coloured 
ribbons — ensigns  of  frequent  occurrence  in  ancient  monu- 
ments. Those  who  survived  three  years  were  released  from 
this  service,  and  sometimes  one  who  had  given  great  satis- 
faction was  enfranchised  on  the  spot.  This  was  done  by 
presenting  the  staff  (rudis)  which  was  used  in  preluding  to  the 
combat ;  on  receiving  which,  the  gladiator,  if  a  freeman,  re- 
covered his  liberty  ;  if  a  slave,  he  was  not  made  free,  but  was 
released  from  the  obligation  of  ventiu'ing  his  life  any  fui'ther 
in  th^  arena. 

Gladiators  were  divided,  according  to  the  fashion  of  their 
armoui'  and  offensive  weapons,  into  classes,  known  by  the 
names  of  Thrax,  Samnis,  Myrmillo,  and  many  others,  of 
which  a  mere  catalogue  would  be  tedious,  and  it  would  be 
the  work  of  a  treatise  to  ascertain  and  describe  their  distinc- 
tive marks.    The  reader  who  has  any  curiosity  upon  tho 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


229 


subject  may  consult  the  Saturnalia  of  Lipsius,  in  whicli  a  vast 
body  of  minute  information  is  collected.  It  falls  however 
strictly  within  our  province  to  describe  a  tomb  at  Pompeii, 
ornamented  with  bas-reliefs  in  good  preservation  when 
copied  by  Mazois  and  Millin,  which  represent  the  two 
branches  of  amusement  practised  in  the  amphitheatre — 
hunting  and  gladiatorial  fights,  and  throw  a  light  upon  many 
parts  of  our  subject. 

It  is  situated  in  the  Street  of  Tombs,  as  it  is  called,  without 
the  gate  leading  to  Herculaneum,  and  consists  of  a  square 
chamber  serving  as  a  basement,  surmounted  by  three  steps, 
upon  which  and  on  the  uppermost  part  of  the  basement  are 
placed  the  sculptures,  of  which  we  proceed  to  speak.  The 
whole  is  terminated  by  a  square  cippus,  or  funeral  pillar, 
which  bore  the  following  inscription  : — 

RICIO.  A.F.  MEN 
_  SCAVRO 
II  VIR.  I.  D. 
-  -  -  ECVRIONES.  LOCVM.  MONVM. 
-  -  00  00   IN.  FVNERE  ET.  STATVAM  EQVESS. 
-  -  -  ORO.  PONENDAM.  CENSVERVNT. 
SCAVRVS.  PATER.  FILIO* 

"To  Aricius  Scaurus,  son  of  Aulus,  of  the  tribe  Menenia, 
Duumvir  of  Justice,  the  decurions  decreed  the  site  of  the 
monument,  two  thousand  sesterces  for  funeral  expenses,  and 
an  equestrian  statue  in  the  Forum.  Scaurus  the  father  to  his 
son." 

We  give  drawings  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  sculp- 
tures, from  Mazois,  to  whose  researches  we  are  also  indebted 
for  the  following  account  of  them.    The  earlier  ones  relate 


*  The  marble  is  broken,  so  that  the  first  name  {preenomen)  and  the  first 
letters  of  the  name  are  lost.  The  latter  has  been  ditferently  read,  Aricius 
Castricius,  Pairicius.  Which  is  right  is  of  little  importance.  The  beginnings 
of  all  the  longer  lines  are  wanting,  and  the  symmetry  of  the  inscription  would 
lead  us  to  suppose  that  the  cipher  which  stands  for  a  thousand  should  be 
prefixed  once  oftener  in  the  fitfh  line:  which  will  make  three  thousand 
sesterces,  about  £24. 


unarmed,  between  a  lion  and  a  panther ;  the  second,  a  wild 
boar  apparently  running  at  a  man,  also  naked  and  defenceless, 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


23] 


and  in  a  lialf-recumbent  posture.  Mazois  conjectures  that 
these  figures  were  of  that  class  of  combatants  who,  trusting 
in  their  activity  alone,  entered  the  arena  merely  to  provoke 
the  wild  beasts  after  they  were  let  loose ;  and  he  adds  that 
this  dangerous  exercise  was  still  practised  in  the  bull-fights  at 
Eome.  Defenceless  as  these  figures  are-,  they  show  no  signs 
of  alarm,  and  in  particular,  he  who  is  opposed  to  the  boar 
seems  collecting  himself  for  a  spring  to  baffle  his  enemy. 
In  the  continuation  of  the  same  relief  is  a  wolf  at  full  speed, 
gnawing  a  javelin  deeply  fixed  in  his  chest,  and  further  on  a 
stag,  with  a  rope  attached  to  his  horns,  pulled  down  by  two 
dogs  or  wolves.  The  next  group  is  the  most  curious  of  this 
series,  for  it  seems  to  represent  the  process  by  which  the 
hestiarii  were  trained  in  their  profession.  It  exhibits  a  youth— 
Lis  legs  and  thighs  protected  by  a  sort  of  armour,  a  javelin  in 
each  hand — attacking  a  panther.  The  freedom  of  the  beast's 
movements  is  hampered  by  a  cord  attached  at  one  end  to  a 
collar  round  its  neck,  and  at  the  other  to  a  broad  girth  which 
passes  round  the  body  of  a  bull.  By  this  arrangement  the 
novice  is  in  part  protected,  while  at  the  same  time  far  more 
activity  and  wariness  is  required  than  if  the  animal  were 
attached  to  a  fixed  point.  Behind  the  bull  is  another  figure 
with  a  lance,  who  seems  to  goad  the  bull  forwards,  and  thus 
offer  more  scope  for  movement  to  the  panther. 

Another  bas-relief  represents  a  man  fighting  a  bear — a 
sword  in  one  hand  and  a  veil  in  the  other,  the  very  equip- 


ment of  the  matador  in  the  Spanish  bull-fights  to  the 
present  day.  This  circumstance,  of  little  importance  in 
itself,  deserves  remark,  because  it  serves  to  fix  the  period  of 
the  construction  of  the  tomb.    We  learn  from  Pliny  *  that 


*  N.  H.,  viii.  16. 


232 


POMPEII. 


the  veil  was  not  employed  in  the  arena  against  wild  beasts 
before  the  reign  of  Claudius.  Claudius  became  Emperor 
A.D.  41.  In  the  year  59  all  theatrical  exhibitions  were  inter- 
dicted for  ten  years.  Four  years  afterwards  occurred  the 
earthquake,  to  which  we  have  had  occasion  to  make  frequent 
reference  ;  and  as  the  building  bears  evident  marks  of  injury 
from  this  cause,  and  repair,  we  must  conclude  that  it  was 
erected  at  some  time  between  the  dates  already  given, 
probably  during  the  ten  or  twelve  years  antecedent  to  the 
year  59. 

The  sculptures  on  the  basement  are  divided  into  two  lines 
of  figures,  forming  a  sort  of  double  frieze.  Here,  as  in  the 
upper  series,  they  are  made  of  stucco ;  indeed  there  is  no 
marble  about  the  tomb  except  the  slab  on  which  the 
inscription  was  engraved.  The  figures  appear  to  have  been 
moulded  separately,  and  attached  to  the  plaster  ground  by 
brass  or  iron  pins,  more  frequently  the  latter.  These  in 
many  instances  have  been  destroyed  by  rust,  and  have 
suffered  the  figures  to  drop.  It  is  worthy  of  observation 
that  the  sculpture  has  been  in  part  restored,  and  that  under 
the  present  figures  others  have  been  found,  of  better  work- 
manship, and,  in  some  instances,  differently  armed. 

In  various  portions  of  the  frieze  are  written  the  name  of 
the  person  to  whom  the  gladiators  belonged — one  Ampliatus 
— the  names  of  the  combatants,  and  the  number  of  their 
victories.  Ampliatus  probably  was  the  lanista  of  the  city ; 
for  an  inscription  found  on  the  outer  wall  of  the  basilica, 
states  that  the  family  of  N.  Festus  Ampliatus  will  contend  a 
second  time  on  the  17th  May.  These  names  are  written  in 
black,  the  letters  narrow  and  ill  shaped. 

The  upper  frieze  contains  eight  pairs  of  gladiators.  The 
first  pair,  on  the  left,  represents  an  equestrian  combat.  The 
first  figure  is  called  Bebrix,  a  barbarous  name,  which  denotes 
a  foreign  origin.  The  numerals  added  to  his  name  denote 
the  number  of  contests  in  which  he  has  been  victorious  ; 
they  are  much  effaced,  but  have  been  read  XII.*  His 

*  The  letters  IVI  occur  over  most  of  the  figures.  In  conjunction  with  the 
numerals,  Mazois  seems  to  interpret  them;  "  conquered  so  many  times but  he 
does  not  tell  of  what  word  he  supposes  them  to  be  the  abbreviation,  nor  are 
we  prepared  to  suggest  any.  [The  letters  seem  rather  to  be  TVL.  standing 
for  tuUt,  i.e.,  victorias,  which  last  word  is  understood.     See  Breton,  p.  92.] 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


233 


adversary  is  called  Nobilior,  and  reckons  XI  victories. 
Both  are  armed  alike  with  a  light  lance,  a  round  buckler 
(parma)  elegantly  ornamented,  and  helmets,  with  vizors 
which  cover  the  whole  face,  and  more  resemble  the  helmets 
of  the  Middle  Ages  than  the  Eoman  helmet  as  it  is  usually 
represented.  The  right  arms  of  both  and  the  thigh  of 
Nobilior  are  protected  by  a  sort  of  armour  resembling  suc- 
cessive bands  of  iron.  These  two  gladiators  are  clothed  in 
the  inducula,  a  short  and  light  cloak  which  formed  part  of 
the  dress  of  the  Eoman  knights ;  the  legs  are  naked.  Bebrix 
has  shoes  resembling  those  now  in  use,  but  Nobilior  wears 
the  semiplotia,  a  kind  of  hunting  shoe  bound  with  thongs, 


round  the  leg.^  The  horse  is  coverea  with  the  sagma,  a 
square  saddle-cloth  in  use  among  the  Koman  cavalry ;  the 
crupper  is  painted  red.  The  action  of  the  figures  is  good. 
Bebrix  appears  to  have  aimed  at  Nobilior  a  blow  with  his 
lance,  who  having  received  it  on  the  buckler,  attacks  in  his 
turn  Bebrix,  who  now  places  himself  on  the  defensive. 

The  group  next  in  succession  represents  two  gladiators 
whose  names  are  defaced.  The  first  wears  a  helmet  having 
a  vizor,  much  ornamented,  with  the  long  buckler  (scutum). 

*  Similar  to  the  rnoccasins  of  the  Indians  or  the  Scotch  brogue.  A  similar 
article  of  home  manufacture,  made  of  raw  hide,  is  still  in  use  among  the 
peasants  of  southern  Italy. — See  Pinellis  Costumes, 


234 


POMPEn. 


It  is  presumed  tliat  he  should  have  for  offensive  weapon  a 
sword,  but  the  sculj)tor  has  neglected  to  represent  it.  Like 
all  the  other  gladiators,  he  wears  the  suhligacuhnn,  a  short 
apron  of  red  or  white  stuff  fixed  above  the  hips  by  a  girdle 
of  bronze  or  embroidered  leather.    On  the  right  leg  is  a 


kind  of  buskin,  commonly  made  of  coloured  leather  ;  on  the 
left  an  ocrea  or  greave,  not  reaching  to  the  knee.  The  left 
leg  is  thus  armed,  because  that  side  of  the  body  was  the 
most  exposed  by  the  ancients,  whose  guard  on  account  of  the 
buckler  was  the  reverse  of  the  modern  guard ;  the  rest  of 
the  body  is  entirely  naked.  The  other  figui-e  is  armed 
with  a  helmet  ornamented  with  wings,  a  smaller  buckler, 
ihigh-pieces  formed  of  plates  of  iron,  and  on  each  leg  the 
high  greave,  called  by  the  Greeks  Kii-jfjiig,  These  figures 
appear  to  rej^resent  one  of  the  light-armed  class,  called  Veles, 
and  a  Samnite  (Samnis)^  so  called  because  they  were  armed 
after  the  old  Samnite  fashion.  The  former,  who  has  been 
sixteen  times  a  conqueror  in  various  games,  has  at  last  en- 
countered a  more  fortunate,  or  a  more  skilful  adversary. 
He  is  wounded  in  the  breast,  and  has  let  fall  his  buckler, 
avowing  himself  conquered ;  at  the  same  time  be  implores 
the  pity  of  the  people  by  raising  his  finger  towards  them, 
for  it  was  thus  that  gladiators  begged  their  life.  Behind 
him  the  Samnite  awaits  the  answering  sign  from  the  spectators, 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


235 


that  he  may  spare  his  antagonist  or  strike  the  death-blow, 
as  they  decree.  The  third  couple  represents  (Thrax)  a 
Thracian,  so  called  from  the  fashion  of  his  armour,  especially 
the  round  Thracian  shield  (parma),  and  one  called  Myrmillo, 
a  name  of  doubtful  origin.  It  appears,  however,  that  the 
Myrmillones  were  for  the  most  part  Gauls,  and  armed 
somewhat  in  the  Gallic  style,  and  that  the  Thrax  and  the 
Myrmillo  were  usually  opposed  to  each  other.  The  Thrax 
wears  a  helmet,  with  greaves  and  thigh-pieces  like  those  of 
the  Samnite  ;  and  we  may  here  observe  that  the  right  arm  ol 
every  figure  is  protected  by  a  banded  armour  which  we  have 
already  described.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  naked. 
The  dress  of  the  Myrmillo  is  nearly  the  same,  except  that  he 
has  not  the  thigh-pieces.  A  conqueror  XV  times,  he  is  now 
worsted,  and  his  adversary  gains  the  XXXVth  victory ;  and 
the  letter  ©  over  his  head,  the  initial  of  Oav(x)v  indicates  that 
he  was  put  to  death.  The  M  which  precedes  it  is  inter- 
preted to  be  the  initial  of  Myrmillo.* 

The  next  group  consists  of  four  figures.  Two  are 
secutores,  followers,  the  other  two,  retiarii,  net  men,  armed 
only  with  a  trident  and  net,  with  which  they  endeavoured  to 
entangle  their  adversary,  and  then  despatch  him.  These 
classes,  like  the  Thrax  and  Myrmillo,  w^ere  usual  antagonists, 
and  had  their  name  from  the  secutor  following  the  retiarius, 
who  eluded  the  pursuit  until  he  found  an  opportunity  to 
throw  his  net  to  advantage.  Nepimus,  one  of  the  latter,  five 
times  victorious,  has  fought  against  one  of  the  former,  whose 
name  is  lost,  but  who  had  triumphed  six  times  in  different 
combats.  He  has  been  less  fortunate  in  this  battle.  Nepimus 
has  struck  him  in  the  leg,  the  thigh,  and  the  left  arm ;  his 
blood  runs,  and  in  vain  he  implores  mercy  from  the  spec- 
tators. As  the  trident  with  which  Nepimus  is  armed  is  not 
a  weapon  calculated  to  inflict  speedy  and  certain  death,  the 
secutor  Hyppolitus  performs  this  last  office  to  his  comrade. 
The  condemned  wretch  bends  the  knee,  presents  his  throat 
to  the  sword,  and  throws  himself  forward  to  meet  the  blow, 
while  Nepimus  his  conqueror  pushes  him,  and  seems  to 
insult  the  last  moments  of  his  victim.  In  the  distance  is 
the  retiarius,  who  must  fight  Hyppolitus  in  his  turn.  The 

*  Overbeck  interprets  the  M  by  mo?'S,  and  the  0  by  ^dyaros. 


236  POMPEII. 

secutores  have  a  very  2)lain  helmet,  that  their  adversary  may 
have  little  or  no  opportunity  of  pulling  it  off  with  the  net  or 


trident ;  the  right  arm  is  clothed  in  armour,  the  left  bore  a 
chjpeus,  or  large  round  shield  ;  a  sandal  tied  with  narrow 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


237 


bands  forms  tlie  covering  for  their  feet.  They  wear  no  body 
armour,  no  covering  but  a  cloth  round  the  waist,  for  by  their 
lightness  and  activity  alone  could  they  hope  to  avoid  death 
and  gain  the  victory.  The  retiarii  have  the  head  bare, 
except  a  fillet  bound  round  the  hair ;  they  have  no  shield, 
but  the  left  side  is  covered  with  a  demi-cuirass,  and  the  left 
arm  protected  in  the  usual  manner,  except  that  the  shoulder- 
piece  is  very  high.  They  wear  the  caliga,  or  low  boot 
common  to  the  Roman  soldiery,  and  bear  the  trident ;  but 
the  net  with  which  they  endeavoured  to  envelope  their 


adversaries  is  nowhere  visible.  This  bas-relief  is  terminated 
by  the  combat  between  a  light-armed  gladiator  and  a  Samnite. 
This  last  beseeches  the  spectators  to  save  him,  but  it  appears 
from  the  action  of  the  principal  figure  that  this  is  not 
granted.  The  conqueror  looks  towards  the  steps  of  the 
amphitheatre ;  he  has  seen  the  fatal  signal,  and  in  reply 
prepares  himself  to  strike. 

Between  the  pilasters  of  the  door  the  frieze  is  continued. 
Two  combats  are  represented.  In  the  first  a  Samnite  has 
been  conquered  by  a  Myrmillo.  This  last  wishes  to  become 
his  comrade's  executioner  without  waiting  the  answer  from 
the  people,  to  whom  the  vanquished  has  appealed ;  but  the 
lanista  checks  his  arm,  from  which  it  would  seem  that  the 
Samnite  obtained  pardon.  The  following  pair  exhibits  a 
similar  combat,  in  which  the  Myrmillo  falls,  stabbed  to 


238  POMPEII. 

death.  The  wounds,  the  blood,  and  the  inside  of  the 
bucklers  are  painted  of  a  very  bright  red  colour.  The 


swords,  vnth  the  exception  of  that  of  Hyppolitus,  are 
omitted  ;  it  is  possible  that  it  was  intended  to  make  them  of 
metal. 


The  bas-reliefs  constituting  the  lower  frieze  are  devoted 
to  the  chace  and  to  combats  between  men  and  animals. 
In  the  upper  part  are  hares  pm'sued  by  a  dog ;  beyond  is  a 
wounded  stag  pursued  by  dogs,  to  whom  he  is  about  to 
become  the  prey ;  below,  a  wild  boar  is  seized  by  an  enor- 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE.  239 

mous  dog,  who  has  already  caused  his  blood  to  flow.  In  the 
middle  of  the  composition  a  bestiarius  has  transfixed  a  bear 


with  a  stroke  of  his  lance.  This  person  wears  a  kind  of 
short  hunting  boot,  and  is  clothed  as  well  as  his  comrade  in 


a  light  tunic  without  sleeves,  bound  round  the  hips,  and 
called  subucula.     It  was  the  dress  of  the  common  people, 


rs  we  learn  from  the  sculptm^es  on  Trajan's  column.  The 
compauiGn  of  this  man  has  transfixed  a  bull,  v>-hich  flies. 


240 


POMPEII. 


carrying  with  him  the  heavy  lance  with  which  he  is  wounded. 

He  turns  his  head  towards  his  assailant,  and  seems  to  wish 
to  return  to  the  attack;  the  man  by  his  gestures  appears 
astonished,  beholding  himseK  disarmed  and  at  the  mercy  of 
the  animal,  whom  he  thought  mortally  stricken.  Pliny 
(lib.  viii.  cap.  45)  speaks  of  the  ferocity  shown  by  bulls  in  these 
combats,  and  of  having  seen  them,  when  stretched  for  dead 
on  the  arena,  lift  themselves  up  and  renew  the  combat. 
The  following  cuts  represent  the  helmets  of  two  of  the 
figures  at  large,  and  the  greaves,  or  boots. 


Another  sort  of  amphitheatrical  amusements  consisted  in 
witnessing  the  death  of  persons  under  sentence  of  the  law, 
either  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner,  or  by  being  exposed 
to  the  fury  of  savage  animals.  The  early  Christians  were 
especially  subjected  to  this  species  of  cruelty.  Nero  availed 
himself  of  the  prejudice  against  them  to  turn  aside  popular 
indignation  after  the  great  conflagration  of  Kome,  which  is 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


241 


commonly  ascribed  to  his  own  wanton  love  of  mischief;  and 
we  learn  from  Tertullian,  that,  after  great  public  misfor- 
tunes, the  cry  of  the  populace  was,  "  To  the  lions  with  the 
Christians."*  The  Coliseum  now  owes  its  preservation  to 
the  Christian  blood  so  profusely  shed  within  its  walls. 
After  serving  during  ages  as  a  quarry  of  hewn  stone  for  the 
use  of  all  whose  station  and  power  entitled  them  to  a  share 
in  j)ublic  plunder,  it  was  at  last  secured  from  further  injury 
by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.,  who  consecrated  the  building  about 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and  placed  it  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  martyrs,  who  had  there  borne  testimony  with 
their  blood  to  the  sincerity  of  their  belief. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  amphitheatre  of  Pompeii  at  variance 
with  the  general  description  of  this  class  of  buildings,  and 
our  notice  of  it  will  therefore  necessarily  be  short.  Its 
form,  as  usual,  is  oval :  the  extreme  length,  from  outside 
to  outside  of  the  exterior  arcade,  is  430  feet,  its  greatest 
breadth  is  335  feet.  The  spectators  gained  admission  by 
tickets,  which  had  numbers  or  marks  on  them,  corresponding 
with  similar  signs  on  the  arches  througli  which  they  entered. 
Those  who  were  entitled  to  occupy  the  lower  ranges  of  seats 
])assed  through  the  perforated  arcades  of  the  lower  order ; 
those  whose  place  was  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  cavea 
ascended  by  staircases  between  the  seats  and  the  outer  wall 
of  the  building.  From  hence  the  women  again  ascended  to 
the  upper  tier,  which  was  divided  into  boxes,  and  appro- 
priated to  them.  The  construction  consists  for  the  most 
part  of  the  rough  masonry  called  ojjus  incerfum,  mth  quoins 
of  squared  stone,  and  some  trifling  restorations  of  rubble. 
This  rude  mass  was  probably  once  covered  witli  a  more 
sumptuous  facing  of  hewn  stone  ;  but  there  are  now  no 
other  traces  of  it  than  a  few  of  the  key-stones,  on  one  of 
which  a  chariot  and  two  horses  is  sculptured,  on  another  a 
head ;  besides  which  there  are  a  few  stars  on  the  wedge- 
stones. 

At  each  end  of  the  ellipse  were  entrances  into  the  arena 
for  the  combatants,  through  which  the  dead  bodies  were 
dragged  out  into  the  spoliarium.  These  were  also  the  prin- 
cipal approaches  to  the  lower  ranges  of  seats,  occupied  by 

*  Tertullian,  Apol.  40. 

R 


242 


POMPEH. 


the  senators,  magistrates,  and  knights,  by  means  of  corridors 
to  the  right  and  left  which  ran  round  the  arena.  The  ends 
of  these  passages  were  secured  by  metal  gratings  against  the 
intrusion  of  wild  beasts.    In  the  northern  one  are  nine 


places  for  pedestals  to  form  a  line  of  separation,  dividing  the 
entrance  into  two  parts  of  unequal  breadth.  The  seats  are 
elevated  above  the  arena  upon  a  high  podium  or  parapet, 
upon  which,  when  the  building  was  first  opened,  there 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


243 


remained  several  inscriptions,  containing  the  names  of 
duumvirs  who  had  presided  upon  different  occasions.  There 
were  also  paintings  in  fresco,  one  representing  a  tigress 
fighting  with  a  wild  boar  ;  another,  a  stag  chased  by  a  lioness ; 
another,  a  battle  between  a  bull  and  bear.  Other  subjects 
comprised  candelabra,  a  distribution  of  palms  among  the 
gladiators,  winged  genii,  minstrels,  and  musicians ;  but  all 
disappeared  soon  after  their  exposure  to  the  atmosphere. 
The  amphitheatre  comprises  twenty-four  rows  of  seats,  and 
about  20,000  feet  of  sitting-room :  it  would  consequently 
afford  accommodation  for  something  more  than  ten  thousand 
people,  exclusive  of  those  who  were  obliged  to  take  up  with 
standing  room. 


Bronze  Helmet,  supposed  to  have  been  worn  by  a  gladiator. 


It  may  be  observed  that  the  arena  of  the  amphitheatre  of 
Pompeii  appears  to  be  formed  of  the  natural  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  has  none  of  those  vast  substructions  observable  at 
Pozzuoli  and  Capua.  It  does  not  therefore  appear  capable 
of  being  turned  into  a  Naumachia,  nor  indeed  would  it  have 
been  easy  to  find  there  water  enough  for  such  a  purpose. 

Having  now  described  all  the  public  buildings  of  Pompeii, 
it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  say  a  few  words  on  their 


244 


POMPEII. 


arcliitecturai  cliaracter.  The  city,  as  might  be  expected 
from  its  antiquity  and  from  its  change  of  masters,  having 
been  a  Greek  colony  long  before  its  subjugation  by  the 
Eomans,  presents  us  with  examples  both  of  Greek  and 
Koman  architecture,  domestic  as  well  as  public.  The  Eo- 
mans borrowed  their  knowledge  of  building  from  the  Greeks, 
but  they  borrowed  it  as  imitators,  not  as  copyists.  They 
aimed  at  variety  by  altering  the  details  and  proportions  of 
the  several  orders,  and  what  they  gained  in  novelty  they  lost 
in  beauty.  Hence  the  Doric  and  Ionic  of  the  one  are  im- 
mediately distinguishable  from  the  Doric  and  Ionic  of  the 
other:  the  difference  between  the  Corinthian  orders  is  less 
j^erceptible,  consisting  chiefly  in  the  foliage  of  the  capital. 
In  Greece  the  Doric  gradually  changed  its  character,  being 
most  robust  in  the  most  ancient  examples.  But  the  stan- 
dard examples  of  it,  built  in  the  age  of  Pericles,  are  still 
robust  in  character,  with  twenty  flutings,  or  longitudinal 
channels  cut  in  the  pillars.  The  Eomans  made  the  column 
more  slender,  and  at  the  same  time  increased  the  number  of 
flutings.  The  original  w^as  placed  upon  the  temple  floor, 
without  even  a  plinth — the  copy  was  raised  upon  a  pedestal ; 
the  caj^ital  of  the  former  was  grave  and  simple — that  of  the 
latter  was  more  elaborate,  and  enriched  with  mouldings. 
At  Pompeii  the  most  characteristic  parts  of  the  buildings, 
the  entablatm'es  and  capitals,  are  almost  all  destroyed. 
Still  enough  remains  for  us  in  most  instances  to  ascertain 
the  style  of  what  remains,  and  consequently  to  ascribe  to 
them  something  like  a  comparative  date.  Thus  the  columns 
which  surround  the  Forum  fulfil  the  above-named  conditions 
of  the  Grecian  Doric ;  they  have  no  base,  contain  twenty 
flutings,  and  have  a  simple  capital.  Similar  in  style  are 
those  of  the  triangular  forum  in  the  quarter  of  the  theatres  ; 
and  the  schools  or  tribunal,  and  the  square  called  the  soldiers' 
quarters  are  also  evidently  of  Greek  design  and  construction, 
though  repaired  by  their  last  possessors.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served, however,  that  the  Doric  of  Pompeii,  though  it  pre- 
serves the  Greek  taste  in  the  detail  of  its  mouldings,  is  ex- 
ceedingly slender,  and  in  this  respect  varies  materially  from 
the  most  esteemed  models  of  the  order. 

Another  characteristic  of  Greek  architecture,  which  points 
out  its  originality  in  a  striking  manner,  is  tliat  the  profiles 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE. 


245 


of  all  its  mouldings  are  drawn  by  hand,  and  cannot  be  me- 
chanically described,  whereas  the  Roman  mouldings  are  all 
formed  on  some  geometrical  construction.  Hence  the  latter 
are  always  similar,  while  the  former  admit  of  indefinite 
variety,  according  to  circumstances  which  might  influence 
the  architect,  though  they  escape  our  notice.  The  reader 
may  see  an  instance  of  this  in  a  capital  from  the  Parthenon, 
now  in  the  British  Museum.  Upon  cursory  examination  the 
projecting  moulding  of  the  capital  under  the  abacus  would 
be  taken  for  the  frustum  of  a  cone,  whereas  it  is  really  a 
very  delicate  curve.  What  the  object  of  the  architect  was  in 
tracing  this  line,  which  viewed  from  below  must  have  ap- 
peared a  straight  line,  it  may  not  be  easy  to  determine ;  but 
without  doubt  in  taking  this  trouble  he  was  influenced  by 
some  delicate  perception  of  beauty.  It  is  from  this  pecu- 
liarity in  the  mouldings  that  we  conclude  the  small  portico, 
propylaeum,  or  entrance  to  the  triangular  forum,  was  de- 
signed by  a  Greek  architect.  It  is  of  the  Ionic  order ;  the 
mouldings  and  the  volutes  or  spiral  horns  are  more  elegant 
than  in  the  Roman  style.  In  addition  to  this  the  deep  sink- 
ing under  some  of  the  mouldings,  which  the  strictness  of 
Roman  rules  did  not  allow,  stamp  it  as  a  Greek  work,  where 
variety  and  thought  wxre  permitted. 

The  capital  of  the  Ionic  order  found  in  this  city  diifers  in 
one  respect  from  all  the  examples,  both  Greek  and  Roman, 
with  which  we  are  acquainted.  We  allude  to  the  orna- 
mented echinus  moulding  which  runs  under  the  volutes, 
which  usually  is  carved  to  represent  eggs  within  a  shell, 
thus : — 


But  in  the  Pompeian  examples  the  egg  is  very  small,  and 
the  shell  or  husk  is  of  a  difl'erent  form,  more  like  the  section 


246 


POMPEII. 


of  a  horse-cliesnut,  showing  a  small  portion  of  the  nut 
where  the  rind  is  partially  split,  from  which  indeed  the  idea 
may  possibly  have  been  taken. 

The  Basilica  is  similar  in  the  details  of  its  architecture  to 
the  celebrated  Temple  of  Yesta  at  Tivoli,  supposed  to  have 
been  erected  by  a  Greek  architect,  and  displays  marks  of 
Grecian  taste. 

The  oldest  building  in  Pompeii  is  the  Temple  of  Hercules, 
perhaps  erected  by  the  first  Greek  colonists,  or  at  least 
raised  on  the  site  of  a  more  ancient  temple.  It  is  Doric, 
and  of  course  Grecian  ;  and  the  style  observable  in  its  scanty 
remains  leads  the  learned  to  refer  it  to  the  most  remote 
antiquity.  The  most  remarkable  feature  is  the  swelling  of 
the  flat  part  of  the  echinus  moulding,  which,  when  the  order 
became  perfected  in  the  Parthenon  and  Temple  of  Theseus 
at  Athens,  was  made  flat  or  insensibly  curved,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  capital  above  referred  to.  The  basements  also 
of  some  of  the  temples  may  be  considered  as  more  ancient 
than  the  columns  reared  upon  them,  and  it  is  very  possible 
that  both  the  basement  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  and  that  of 
the  Temple  of  Venus  may  be  of  Greek  construction.  The 
Komans  either  repaired  or  rebuilt  many  of  the  public  buildings 
of  the  city.  The  ruins  of  brick  at  the  end  of  the  Forum, 
opposite  the  Temple  of  Jupiter,  were  built  by  them;  the 
baths,  with  their  vaulted  ceiling,  they  also  constructed.  The 
Temple  of  Fortune  was  erected  by  a  Eoman  individual,  as 
the  inscription  sets  forth ;  and  the  Pantheon,  Temple  of 
Mercury,  with  the  building  placed  between  them,  as  well  as 
the  crypto-portico  of  Eumachia,  which  is  partly  built  of 
brick,  bear  evident  marks  of  a  Eoman  origin.  The  Temple 
of  Venus  may  be  considered  as  Eoman,  its  original  Greek 
design  having  been  changed  by  a  coat  of  plaster,  as  we  have 
already  observed.  The  theatres  and  amphitheatre  are  evi- 
dently Eoman.  That  the  former  were  so  is  ascertained 
from  inscriptions,*  while  the  latter  was,  as  we  well  know,  of 

*  The  inscriptions  do  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  theatres  were  built  by 
those  whose  names  they  record.  At  all  events,  if  they  are  originally  of  Roman 
construction,  their  situation  on  the  side  of  a  hill  is  after  the  Greek  fashion ; 
while  their  vicinity  to  the  Greek  temple  shows  that  ihey  were  in  the  oldest 
part  of  the  city.  The  inscriptions  will  be  found  in  ^lommsen's  Inscrr.  Eegni 
Ne.ipolitani,  p.  115. 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE.  247 

their  own  invention.  The  triumplial  arches  are  of  course 
Eoman,  such  buildings  having  been  unknown  to  the  Greeks. 
Jn  private  dwellings,  as  well  as  in  public  edifices,  the  same 
mixed  character  is  evident,  and  adds  to  their  interest.  But 
this  branch  of  the  subject  belongs  to  the  next  part 


END  OF  PAE7  I. 


248 


PART  11. 


Ionic  Capital.* 

CHAPTER  I. 

DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  ITALY. 

The  first  part  having  been  employed  in  describing  the 
public  buildings  wliicb  are  preserved  in  Pompeii,  the  second 
will  contain  an  account  of  the  most  remarkable  houses  which 
have  been  disinterred ;  of  the  paintings,  domestic  utensils, 
and  other  articles  found  in  them ;  and  such  information  upon 
the  domestic  manners  of  the  ancient  Italians  as  may  seem 
requisite  to  the  illustration  of  these  remains.  This  branch 
of  our  subject  is  not  less  interesting,  nor  less  extensive  than 
the  other.  Temples  and  theatres,  in  equal  preservation,  and 
of  greater  splendour  than  those  at  Pompeii,  may  be  seen  in 
many  places ;  but  towards  acquainting  us  with  the  habita- 
tions, the  private  luxuries  and  elegancies  of  ancient  life,  not 
all  the  scattered  fragments  of  domestic  architecture  which 
exist  elsewhere  have  done  so  much  as  this  city,  with  its 

*  Ionic  capital,  from  Pompeii,  with  angular  volutes.  The  order  partakes 
much  of  the  Doric ;  being  without  a  base,  and  having  the  shaft  sharply  ter- 
minated. Four  similar  capitals  are  to  be  seen  at  the  four  angles  of  the  Greco- 
yiculan  sepulchral  monument  at  Girgenti,  commonly  called  the  Sepulchre  of 
the  Horse. 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  ITALY. 


249 


fellow-sufferer,  Herculaneum.  But  as  these  ancient  houses 
differ  very  much  from  any  now  in  use,  and  as  we  shall  have 
continual  occasion  to  use  the  terms  by  which  Yitruvius,  and, 
after  him,  modern  architects,  have  named  their  several  apart- 
ments, it  will  be  useful  to  preface  our  descriptions  by  a  short 
account  of  the  steps  by  which  the  Romans  advanced  from 
huts  to  palaces,  as  the  residences  of  the  more  wealthy  indivi- 
duals among  them  may  be  termed,  and  of  the  distribution  and 
purposes  of  the  rooms,  for  a  general  resemblance  is  to  be 
found  in  the  ground-plan  of  all  of  them.  We  shall  also  give 
an  explanation  of  those  architectural  terms  which  we  shall 
have  occasion  most  frequently  to  employ. 

If  we  ascend  to  the  earliest  period  of  Roman  story,  and 
mention  the  thatched  cottage  of  Romulus,  religiously  pre- 
served in  the  Capitol,  and  repaired  from  time  to  time  with 
the  same  rude  materials  of  which  it  was  originally  built,  it  is 
not  with  the  purpose  of  drawing  any  inference  with  respect 
to  the  domestic  architecture  of  that  remote  and  fabulous 
time,  or  of  fatiguing  the  reader  by  tracing  the  progress  of 
this  art  from  the  cottage  of  Romulus  to  the  golden  house  of 
Nero.  Bui  there  is  a  singularly  interesting  relic  of  antiquity 
preserved  by  Mazois,  which  this  mention  of  the  founder  of 
Rome  may  serve  to  introduce  to  our  notice.  Some  time 
since,  a  quantity  of  cinerary  vases  were  discovered  in  the 


Cabin  of  the  Aboriginal  Latians. 


neighbournood  of  Alba,  which,  on  that  eminent  architect's 
authority,*  "belong  unquestionably  to  the  first  inhabitants 

*  Part  ii.  p.  5. 


250 


POMPEII. 


of  Latium,  and  ascend  beyond  the  earliest  known  epochs  of 
Italian  history,  since  the  spot  in  which  they  were  found  is 
entirely  covered  with  thick  beds  of  lava  which  have  flowed 
from  Monte  Albano,  a  volcano  of  whose  eruptions  all  memory 
is  lost  in  the  night  of  antiquity."  That  which  makes  these 
urns  most  curious,  is,  that  they  represent  the  rude  habitations 
of  the  time ;  and  granting  that  they  are  genuine,  of  which 
Mazois  expresses  no  doubt,  the  nature  of  these  representa- 
tions is  sufficient  warranty  of  their  high  antiquity.  Here, 
probably,  we  see  the  cabins  of  the  aboriginal  Latians  ;  and 
such,  we  may  conjecture,  was  the  cottage  so  long  preserved 
with  religious  veneration  in  the  Capitol. 

To  the  reign  of  the  first  Tarquin  is  ascribed  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Etruscan  style  of  architecture,  as  well  in  the 
arrangement  of  houses,  as  in  the  magnificent  public  works, 
the  walls,  sewers,  and  Forum,  which  are  said  to  have  been 
built  by  him.  But,  to  pass  hastily  over  this  doubtful  ground, 
it  is  enough  to  state  that  we  have  authority  for  giving  an 
Etruscan  origin  to  the  principal  divisions  of  the  Eoman 
houses.*  These  in  the  early  ages  were  poor  and  mean.  For 
the  first  five  hundred  years  of  the  city,  the  use  of  tiles  was 
unknown,  thatch  or  shingles  forming  the  materials  of  roofs ; 
and  a  story  is  told  that  the  consul  Publicola,  having  built  a 
house  of  such  splendour,  according  to  the  notions  of  the  age, 
as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  the  j)eople,  demolished  it  in  a 
single  night  in  hope  of  regaining  his  popularity ;  conclusive 
proof  against  the  solidity,  at  least,  of  the  building.  Excessive 
expense  was  guarded  against  by  sumptuary  laws  ;  and  it  was 
forbidden  to  build  walls  exceeding  about  a  foot  and  a  half  in 
thickness.  This  restriction,  with  the  weak  nature  of  the 
materials  employed  in  early  times,  at  first  unbaked  bricks, 
then  wooden  frame-work  filled  up  with  masonry,  limited  the 
height  of  houses  to  one  story,  as  we  are  told  by  Vitruvius  : 
and  even  after  baked  bricks  were  known,  their  size,  which 
exceeded  the  size  of  those  now  in  use,!  rendered  it  difficult 
to  break  the  joints,  and  bond  the  walls  sufficiently  for  lofty 

*  Varro  and  Festas,  quoted  by  Mazois,  part  ii.  p.  7. 

t  They  were  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  and  a  foot  broad.  This  being  the  case 
the  wall  would  only  have  been  one  brick  thick,  and  liable  to  open  at  any  of 
the  joints.  We  give  solidity  to  walls  which  are  no  thicker,  by  interweaving' 
the  bricks  so  that  no  joint  may  run  through. — Vitruv.  ii.  3,  8. 


DOMESTIC  ABCHITECTUrvE  OF  ITALY. 


251 


erections.  As  population  increased,  and  with  it  tlie  value  of 
ground  in  the  city,  economy  of  room  was  sought  in  added 
height,  and  the  increased  skill  of  the  architect  found  means 
to  raise  houses  of  several  stories.  They  were  then  sur- 
mounted by  a  terrace  named  solarium^  from  sol,  the  sun, 
whose  genial  warmth  the  inhabitants  enjoyed  there  in  the 
winter :  while  in  the  summer  they  frequented  it  for  the  sake 
of  the  cool  evening  breeze,  and  the  magnificent  prospects  of 
the  city  and  its  environs.  Here  the  Romans  loved  to  take 
their  evening  repast,  and  hence  the  upper  story  received  the 
name  of  ccenaculum,  the  supper-room.  At  last  houses  reached 
such  an  extreme  height,  that  Augustus  forbad  a  greater 
elevation  than  seventy  feet  to  be  given  them. 

Towards  the  last  years  of  the  republic,  the  Eomans  natu- 
ralized the  arts  of  Greece  among  themselves;  and  Grecian 
architecture  came  into  fashion  at  Eome,  as  we  may  learn, 
among  other  sources,  from  the  letters  of  Cicero  to  Atticus, 
which  bear  constant  testimony  to  the  strong  interest  which 
he  took  in  ornamenting  his  several  houses,  and  mention 
Cyrus,  his  Greek  architect.  At  this  time  immense  fortunes 
were  easily  made  from  the  spoils  of  new  conquests,  or  by 
peculation  and  maladministration  of  subject  provinces,  and 
the  money  thus  ill  and  easily  acquired  was  squandered  in 
the  most  lavish  luxury.  One  favourite  mode  of  indulgence 
was  in  splendour  of  l3uilding.  Lucius  Cassius  was  the  first 
who  ornamented  his  house  with  columns  of  foreign  marble  : 
they  were  only  six  in  number,  and  twelve  feet  high.  He 
was  soon  surpassed  by  Scaurus,  who  placed  in  his  house 
columns  of  the  black  marble  called  Lucullian,  thirty-eight 
feet  high,  and  of  such  vast  and  unusual  weight  that  the  super- 
intendent of  sewers,  as  we  are  told  by  Pliny,*  took  security 
for  any  injury  which  might  happen  to  the  works  under  his 
charge,  before  they  were  suffered  to  be  conveyed  along  the 
streets.  Another  prodigal,  by  name  Mamurra,  set  the  ex- 
ample of  lining  his  rooms  with  slabs  of  marble.  The  best 
estimate,  however,  of  the  growth  of  architectural  luxury 
about  this  time  may  be  found  in  what  we  are  told  by  Pliny, 
that,  in  the  year  of  Rome  676,  the  house  of  Lepidus  was  the 
finest  in  the  city,  and  thirty-five  years  later  it  was  not  the 
hundredth.*!*    We  may  mention,  as  an  example  of  the  lavish 


*  Nat.  Hist,  xxxvi.  2. 


t  lb.  xxxvi.  15. 


252 


POMPEII. 


expenditure  of  tlie  Eomans,  that  Domitius  Ahenobarbus 
offered  for  the  house  of  Crassus  a  sum  amounting  to  near 
£48,500,  which  was  refused  by  the  owner.*  Nor  were  they 
less  extravagant  in  their  country  houses.  We  may  again 
quote  Cicero,  whose  attachment  to  his  Tusculan  and  Formian 
villas,  and  interest  in  ornamenting  them,  even  in  the  most 
perilous  times,  is  well  known.  Still  more  celebrated  are  the 
villas  of  LucuUus  and  Pollio  ;  of  the  latter  some  remains  are 
still  to  be  seen  near  Pausilipo. 

Augustus  endeavoured  by  his  example  to  check  this  extra- 
vagant passion,  but  he  produced  little  effect.  And  in  the 
palaces  of  the  emperors,  and  especially  the  Aurea  Domus,  the 
Golden  House  of  Nero,  the  domestic  architecture  of  Eome, 
or,  we  might  probably  say,  of  the  world,  reached  its  extreme 
point  of  magnificence.  But  these  wonders  do  not  belong  to 
our  pages  ;  and  to  dwell  on  them  would  but  discredit  the 
edifices  which  it  is  our  province  to  describe,  spacious  in 
themselves  and  sumptuous,  yet  mean  in  comparison  with 
those  of  which  we  have  just  spoken.  We  therefore  proceed 
to  offer  to  the  reader  a  sketch  of  the  arrangement  of  a  Eoman 
house  of  the  better  class. 

This  arrangement,  though  varied,  of  course,  by  local  cir- 
cumstances, and  according  to  the  rank  and  circumstances  of 
the  master,  was  pretty  generally  the  same  in  all.  The  prin- 
cipal rooms,  differing  only  in  size  and  ornament,  recur  every- 
where ;  those  supplemental  ones,  which  were  invented  only 
for  convenience  or  luxury,  vary  according  to  the  tastes  and 
circumstances  of  the  master. 

Yitruvius  directs  our  attention  to  one  principle  of  distribu- 
tion, strange  to  modern  habits,  but  of  importance  towards 
understanding  the  construction  of  a  Eoman  house  ;  that  every 
considerable  mansion  might  be  divided  into  two  parts,  one 
intended  for  public  resort,  the  other  destined  for  the  private 
service  of  the  family.  The  origin  of  this  may  be  found  in 
the  constitution  of  Eome,  by  which  every  plebeian  might 
choose  from  among  the  patricians  a  pati'on,  whose  client  he 
became,  and  to  whose  house  he  resorted  freely  for  advice  or 
assistance.  To  have  a  large  body  of  clients  was  esteemed 
both  honourable  and  advantageous,  as  the  patron  might  of 
course  reckon  on  their  votes  and  support  in  all  civil  matters. 

*  Sexagies  sestertium.    Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xvii.  1. 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  ITALY.  253 


With  this  view,  lawyers  of  eminence  gave  free  access  to  all 
who  wished  to  consult  them ;  and  generally  by  day-break,  or 
before  it,  the  vestibules  and  ante-rooms  of  persons  of  any 
eminence,  but  especially  of  those  who  were  distinguished  by 
wealth  or  political  power,  were  filled  with  a  crowd,  each 
coming  with  some  particular  object,  one  to  recommend  him- 
self by  the  regularity  of  his  attendance,  another  to  request 
some  favour,  another  from  a  wish  to  display  his  intimacy 
with  the  rich  and  powerful  owner,  others  to  receive  the  dole 
of  meat  or  money  which  was  distributed  to  needy  retainers.* 
This  crowd  was  of  course  received  in  the  outer  rooms,  so  as 
to  disturb  as  little  as  possible  the  privacy  of  the  mansion. 
These  rooms,  which  constituted  what  Vitruvius  calls  the 
public  part,  were  the  portico,  vestibule,  cavaedium  or  atrium, 
tablinum,  alae,  fauces,  and  others  less  important,  added  at  the 
will  of  the  owner  or  architect. 

The  private  part  comprised  the  peristyle,  bed-chambers, 
triclinium,  oeci,  picture-gallery,  library,  baths,  excdra,  xystus, 
&c.    We  proceed  to  explain  the  meaning  of  these  terms. 

Before  great  mansions,  but  not  in  that  class  of  houses 
which  we  find  at  Pompeii,  there  was  generally  a  court  or 
area,  upon  which  the  portico  opened,  either  surrounding  three 
sides  of  the  area,  or  merely  running  along  the  front  of  the 
house.  In  smaller  houses  the  portico  ranged  even  with  the 
street.  Within  the  portico,  or  if  there  was  no  portico,  open- 
ing directly  to  the  street,  was  the  vestibule,  consisting  of  one 
or  more  spacious  ai)artments.  It  was  considered  to  be  with- 
out the  house,  and  was  always  open  for  the  recej)tion  of 
those  who  came  to  wait  there  until  the  doors  should  be 
opened.  The  prothyrum,  in  Greek  architecture,  was  the 
same  as  the  vestibule.  In  Eoman  architecture,  it  was  a 
passage-room,  between  the  outer  or  house-door  which  opened 
to  the  vestibule,  and  an  inner  door  which  closed  the  entrance 
of  the  atrium.  In  the  vestibule,  or  in  an  apartment  opening 
upon  it,  the  porter,  ostiarius,  usually  had  his  seat. 

The  atrium,  or  cavaedium.  for  they  a})pcar  to  have  signified 
the  same  thing,|  was  the  most  important,  and  usually  the 

*  Sportuhi  prinio 

Limine  parva  sedet,  turbaj  rapienda  togatae. — Juv.  i.  95. 
See  also  Cic.  ad  Att.  v.  2,  and  the  Satirists,  passim. 

t  Some  commentators  on  Vitruvius,  and  amono;  them  Mr.  Wilkins,  deny 
this.    The  term  cavaedium  is  certainly  equally  applicable  to  any  other  open 


254 


POMPEII. 


most  splendid  apartment  of  the  house.  Here  the  owner  re- 
ceiyed  his  crowd  of  morning  visitors,  who  were  not  admitted  to 
the  inner  apartments.  The  term  is  thus  explained  by  Varro  : 
"  The  hollow  of  the  house  (cavum  sedium)  is  a  covered  place 
wdthin  the  walls,  left  open  to  the  common  use  of  all.  It  is 
called  Tuscan,  from  the  Tuscans,  after  the  Eomans  began  to 
imitate  their  cavgedium.  The  word  atrium  is  derived  from 
the  Atriates,  a  people  of  Tuscany,  from  whom  the  pattern  of 
it  was  taken."*  Originally,  then,  the  atrium  was  the  common 
room  of  resort  for  the  whole  family,  the  place  of  their  do- 
mestic occu]3ations  ;  and  such  it  probably  continued  in  the 
humbler  ranks  of  life.  A  general  description  of  it  may 
easily  be  given.  It  was  a  large  apartment,  roofed  over,  but 
with  an  opening  in  the  centre,  called  comj)Iuvium,'\  towards 
which  the  roof  sloped,  so  as  to  throw  the  rain-water  into  a 
cistern  in  the  floor  called  imoluvium,  Vitruvius,  however 
distinguishes  five  species  of  atria. 

1.  The  Tuscanicum,  or  Tuscan  atrium,  the  oldest  and 
simplest  of  all.  It  was  merely  an  apartment,  the  roof  of 
which  was  supported  by  four  beams  meeting  one  other  at 
right  angles,  the  included  quadrangular  space  forming  the 
compluvium.    Many  of  these  remain  at  Pompeii. 

2.  The  tetrastyle,  or  four-pillared  atrium,  resembled  the 
Tuscan,  except  that  the  girders,  or  main  beams  of  the  roof, 
were  supported  by  pillars,  placed  at  the  four  angles  of  the 
impluvium.  This  furnished  means  of  increasing  the  size  of 
the  apartment. 

3.  The  Corinthian  atrium  differed  from  the  tetrastyle  only 
in  the  number  of  pillars  and  size  of  the  imj^luvium.  A 
greater  proportion  of  the  roof  seems  to  have  been  left  open 

court,  as,  fo-r  instance,  to  the  peristyle ;  and  Pliny,  in  the  account  of  his 
Laarsntine  villa,  makes  mention  of  both  atrium  and  cavaidium,  and  speaks 
also  of  the  pei'istyle.  No  wonder  that  much  obscurity  and  difference  of 
opinion  prevail  on  these  subjects,  since  almost  all  our  knowledge  is  derived 
from  the  scanty  account  of  Vitruvius ;  and  it  is  obvious  that  whatever  general 
rules  might  be  recognised  by  architects,  they  must  have  been  modified  in 
innumerable  instances  by  the  caprice  or  convenience  of  individuals.  It  is  dan- 
gerous, therefore,  to  attempt  to  wrest  the  text  of  an  author,  to  make  it  square 
with  some  specimen  v/hich  has  been  preserved  or  described  ;  for  we  can  never 
be  sure  that  the  two  were  even  meant  to  coincide. 
*  l>e  Ling.  Lat.  lib.  iv. 

j-  From  con  Vindi  pluvia,  because  the  rain  water  was  brought  together  there.. 
The  derivation  of  imDluvium  is  equally  obvious. 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  ITALY. 


255 


The  name  is  entirely  unconnected  with  the  order  of  architec- 
ture to  which  the  columns  belonged. 

4.  The  atrium  displuviatum  had  its  roof  inclined  the 
contrary  w^ay,  so  as  to  throw  the  water  off  to  the  outside  of 
the  house,  instead  of  carrying  it  into  the  impluvium. 

5.  The  atrium  testudinatum  was  roofed  all  over,  without 
any  vacancy  or  compluvium. 

The  roof  around  the  compluvium  was  edged  with  a  row  of 
highly  ornamented  tiles,  called  antefixes,  on  which  a  mask  or 
some  other  figure  v/as  moulded.  At  the  corners  there  were 
usually  spouts,  in  the  form  of  lions'  or  dogs'  heads,  or  any 
fantastical  device  which  the  architect  might  fancy,  which 
carried  the  rain-water  clear  out  into  the  impluvium,  whence 
it  passed  into  cisterns ;  from  which  again  it  was  drawn  for 
household  purposes.  For  drinking,  river- water,  and  still 
more,  well-water,  was  preferred.  Often  the  atrium  was 
adorned  with  fountains,  supplied  through  leaden  or  earthen- 
ware pipes,  from  aqueducts  or  other  raised  heads  of  water ; 
for  the  Romans  knew  the  property  of  fluids,  which  causes 
them  to  stand  at  the  same  height  in  communicating  vessels. 
This  is  distinctly  recognised  by  Pliny,*  though  their  common 
use  of  aqueducts,  in  preference  to  pipes,  has  led  to  a  supposi- 
tion that  this  great  hydrostatical  principle  was  unknown  to 
them.  The  breadth  of  the  impluvium,  according  to  Yitruvius, 
was  not  less  than  a  quarter,  nor  greater  than  a  third,  of  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  atrium  ;  its  length  was  regulated  by  the 
same  standard.  The  opening  above  it  was  often  shaded  by  a 
coloured  veil,  which  diffused  a  softened  light,  and  moderated 
the  intense  heat  of  an  Italian  sun|.  The  splendid  columns 
of  the  house  of  Scaui-us  at  Eome,  w^ere  placed,  as  we  learn 
from  Pliny, J  in  the  atrium  of  his  house.  The  walls  were 
painted  with  landscapes  or  arabesques — a  practice  introduced 
about  the  time  of  Augustus, — or  lined  with  slabs  of  foreign 
and  costly  marbles,  of  which  the  Romans  were  passionately 
fond.  The  pavement  was  composed  of  the  same  precious 
material,  or  of  still  more  valuable  mosaics. 

Nat.  Hist.  xxxi.  6,  S.  31:  Aqua  in  plumbo  subit  altitudinem  exortus  sui. 

t  Rubent  (vela  scil.)  in  cavis  <Tdium,  et  museum  a  sole  detendunt.  We 
may  conclude,  then,  that  the  impluvium  was  sometimes  ornamented  with  moss  or 
flowers,  unless  the  words  cavis  aedium  may  be  extended  to  the  court  of  the  peris- 
tyle, which  was  commonly  laid  out  as  a  garden.    [The  latter  seems  more  likely.] 

X  XXX vi.  1, 


256 


POMPEII. 


The  tablinum  was  an  appendage  of  the  atrium,  and  usually 
entirely  o-pen  to  it.  It  contained,  as  its  name  imports,*  the 
family  archives,  the  statues,  pictures,  genealogical  tables,  and 
other  relics  of  a  long  line  of  ancestors. 

Alae,  wings,  were  similar  but  smaller  apartments,  or  rather 
recesses,  on  each  side  of  the  further  part  of  the  atriuui.  Fauces, 
jaws,  were  passages,  more  esj)ecially  those  which  passed  to 
the  interior  of  the  house  from  the  atrium.  Thus  Virgil  uses 
the  word,  not  merely  in  a  metaphorical  sense  : — 

Vestibulum  ante  ipsum,  primisq:  in  faucibus  Orci." 

JEn.  Yi.  273. 

In  houses  of  small  extent,  strangers  were  lodged  in  cham- 
bers which  surrounded  and  opened  into  the  atrium.  The 
great,  whose  connections  spread  into  the  provinces,  and  who 
were  visited  by  numbers  who,  on  coming  to  Eome,  expected 
to  profit  by  their  hospitality,  had  usually  a  liospitium^  or  place 
of  reception  for  strangers,  either  separate,  or  among  the  depen- 
dencies of  their  palaces. 

Of  the  private  apartments  the  first  to  be  mentioned  is  the 
peristyle,  which  usually  lay  behind  the  atrium,  and  commu- 
nicated with  it  both  through  the  tablinum  and  by  fauces.  In 
its  general  plan  it  resembled  the  atrium,  being  in  fact  a 
court,  open  to  the  sky  in  the  middle,  and  surrounded  by  a 
colonnade,  but  it  was  larger  in  its  dimensions,  and  the  centre 
court  was  often  decorated  with  shrubs  and  flowers  and  foun- 
tains, and  was  then  called  ocystus.  It  should  be  greater  in 
extent  when  measured  transversely  than  in  length,|  and  the 
intercolumniations  should  not  exceed  four,  nor  fall  short  of 
three  diameters  of  the  columns. 

Of  the  arrangement  of  the  bed-chambers  we  know  little. 
They  seem  to  have  been  small  and  inconvenient.  When 
there  was  room  they  had  usually  a  procoeton,  or  ante-chamber. 
Vitruvius  recommends  that  they  should  face  the  east,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  early  sun.  One  of  the  most  important  apart- 
ments in  the  whole  house  was  the  triclinimn,  or  dining-room, 
so  named  from  the  three  beds,  rpets  KXtVat,  which  encom- 
passed the  table  on  three  sides,  leaving-  the  fourth  open  to 

*  From  tabula,  or  tabella,  a  picture.  Another  derivation  is,  "  quasi  e 
tabulis  compact um,"  because  the  large  openings  into  it  might  be  closed  by 
shutters. 

t  This  rule,  however,  is  seldom  observed  in  the  Pompeian  houses. 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  ITALY. 


257 


the  attendants.  The  prodigality  of  the  Eomans  in  matters 
of  eating  is  well  known,  and  it  extended  to  all  matters  con- 
nected with  the  pleasures  of  the  table.  In  their  rooms,  their 
couches,  and  all  the  furniture  of  their  entertainments,  magnifi- 
cence and  extravagance  were  carried  to  their  highest  point. 
The  rich  had  several  of  these  apartments,  to  be  used  at 
different  seasons,  or  on  various  occasions.  Lucullus,  cele- 
brated for  his  wealth  and  profuse  expenditure,  had  a  certain 
standard  of  expenditure  for  each  triclinium,  so  that  when  his 
servants  were  told  which  hall  he  was  to  sup  in,  they  knew 
exactly  the  style  of  entertainment  to  be  prepared ;  and  there 
is  a  well-known  story  of  the  way  in  which  he  deceived  Pompey 
and  Cicero,  when  they  insisted  on  going  home  with  him 
to  see  his  family  supper,  by  merely  sending  word  home  that 
he  would  sup  in  the  Apollo,  one  of  the  most  splendid  of  his 
halls,  in  which  he  never  gave  an  entertainment  for  less  than 
60,000  denarii,  about  £1600.  Sometimes  the  ceiling  was 
contrived  to  open  and  let  doTO  a  second  course  of  meats, 
with  showers  of  flowers  and  perfumed  waters,  while  ro2)c- 
dancers  performed  their  evolutions  over  the  heads  of  the 
company.  The  performances  of  these  funamhuli  are  fre- 
quently represented  in  paintings  at  Pompeii.  Those  in  the 
cut  in  p.  258  have  the  characteristics  of  Fauns,  or,  according 
to  Lord  Monboddo's  theory,  have  not  yet  rubbed  off  their 
tails.  Mazois,  in  his  work  entitled  "Le  Palais  do  Scaurus," 
has  given  a  fancy  picture  of  the  habitation  of  a  Koman 
noble  of  the  highest  class,  in  which  lie  has  embodied  all 
the  scattered  notices  of  domestic  life,  which  a  diligent  pe- 
rusal of  the  Latin  writers  has  enabled  him  to  collect.  His 
description  of  the  triclinium  of  Scaurus  will  give  the 
reader  the  best  notion  of  the  style  in  which  such  an 
apartment  was  furnished  and  ornamented.  For  each  par- 
ticular in  the  description  he  quotes  some  authority.  We 
shall  not,  however,  encumber  our  pages  with  references  to 
a  long  list  of  books  not  likely  to  be  in  tile  possession  of  most 
readers. 

"  The  triclinium  is  twice  as  long  as  it  is  broad,  and  divided, 
as  it  were,  into  two  parts — the  upper  occupied  by  the  table 
and  the  couches,  the  lower  left  empty  for  the  convenience  of 
the  attendants  and  spectators.  Around  the  former  the  walls, 
up  to  a  certain  height,  are  ornamented  with  valuable  hang- 

s 


■258  POMPEII. 

ings.*  The  decorations  of  the  rest  of  the  room  are  noble, 
and  yet  appropriate  to  its  destination ;  garlands,  entwined 


Dancing  Fauns.   From  the  decorated  walls  of  Pompeii. 


with  ivy  and  vine-Branches,  divide  the  walls  into  compart- 
ments, bordered  with  fanciful  ornaments;  in  the  centre  of 

*  It  was  the  fall  of  such  hangings  that  created  such  confusion  at  Nasidienus' 

"  Inteiea  suspensa  graves  aulaea  ruians 
In  patinam  fecere ;  trahentia  pulveris  atri 
Quantum  non  Aquilo  Campanis  excitat  agris.'* 

Hor.  Sat.  ii.  8.  54. 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  ITALY. 


259 


eacli  of  whicli  are  painted  with  admirable  elegance  young 
Fauns,  or  lialf-naked  Baccliantes,  carrying  thyrsi,  vases,  and 
all  the  furniture  of  festive  meetings.  Above  the  columns  is 
a  large  frieze,  divided  into  twelve  compartments;  each  of 
these  is  surmounted  by  one  of  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  and 
contains  paintings  of  the  meats  which  are  in  highest  season 
in  each  month ;  so  that  under  Sagittary  (December),  we  see 
shrimps,  shell-fish,  and  birds  of  passage ;  under  Capricorn 
(January),  lobsters,  sea-fish,  wild-boar,  and  game;  under 
Aquarius  (February),  ducks,  plovers,  pigeons,  water-rails,  &c. 

"  Bronze  lamps,*  dependent  from  chains  of  the  same  metal, 
or  raised  on  richly- wrought  candelabra,  threw  around  the 
room  a  brilliant  light.  Slaves,  set  apart  for  this  service, 
watched  them,  trimmed  the  wicks,  and  from  time  to  time 
supplied  them  with  oil. 

"  The  table,  made  of  citron  wood  j  from  the  extremity  of 
Mauritania,  more  precious  than  gold,  rested  upon  ivory  feet, 
and  was  covered  by  a  plateau  of  massive  silver,  chased  and 
carved,  weighing  five  hundred  pounds.  The  couches,  which 
would  contain  thirty  persons,  were  made  of  bronze  overlaid 
with  ornaments  in  silver,  gold,  and  tortoise-shell ;  the  mat- 
tresses of  Gallic  wool,  dyed  purple  ;  the  valuable  cushions, 
stuffed  with  feathers,  were  covered  witli  stufis  woven  and 
embroidered  with  silk  mixed  with  threads  of  gold.  Chrysippus 
told  us  that  they  were  made  at  Babylon,  and  had  cost  four 
millions  of  sesterces.! 

"  The  mosaic  pavement,  by  a  singular  caprice  of  the 
architect,  represented  all  the  fragments  of  a  feast,  as  if  they 
had  fallen  in  common  course  on  the  floor  ;  so  that  at  the  first 
glance  the  room  seemed  not  to  have  been  swept  since  the  last 
meal,  and  it  was  called  from  hence,  aadpMTos  ot/co?,  the  ud- 
swept  saloon.    At  the  bottom  of  the  hall  were  set  out  vases 

*  The  best  of  these  were  made  at  vEgina.  The  more  common  ones  cost 
from  £20  to  £-5  ;  some  fetched  as  much  as  £400. — Plin.  Hist.  Kat.  xxxiv.  3. 

f  These  citreae  mensa^  have  given  rise  to  considerable  discussion.  Pliny 
says  that  they  were  made  of  the  roots  or  knots  of  the  wood,  and  esteemed  on 
account  of  their  veins  and  markings,  whicli  were  like  a  tiger's  skin,  or  peacock's 
tail  (I.  !I3,  xiv.).  Some  copies  read  ccdri  for  citri  ;  and  it  lias  been  suggested 
that  the  cypress  is  really  meant,  the  roots  and  knots  of  which  are  large  and 
veined;  whereas  the  citron  is  never  used  for  cabinet  work,  and  is  neither 
veined  nor  knotted. 

X  About  £32,200. 


260 


POMPEII. 


of  Corintliian  brass.  This  triclinium,  the  largest  of  four  in 
the  palace  of  Scaurus,  would  easily  contain  a  table  of  sixty 
covers  ;*  but  he  seldom  brings  together  so  large  a  number  of 
guests,  and  when  on  great  occasions  he  entertains  four  or  five 
hundred  persons,  it  is  usually  in  the  atrium.  This  eating- 
room  is  reserved  for  summer;  he  has  others  for  sjjring, 
autumn,  and  winter,  for  the  Eomans  turn  the  change  of  season 
into  a  source  of  luxury.  His  establishment  is  so  appointed 
that  for  each  triclinium  he  has  a  great  number  of  tables  of 
difierent  sorts,  and  each  table  has  its  own  service  and  its  par- 
ticular attendants. 

"  While  waiting  for  their  masters,  young  slaves  strewed 
over  the  pavement  saw-dust  dyed  with  saffron  and  vermilion, 
mixed  with  a  brilliant  powder  made  from  the  lapis  specularis, 
or  talc."  t 

The  reader  must  not  expect  to  find  this  magnificent 
picture  realized  in  the  comparatively  humble  houses  of 
Pompeii ;  though  the  triclinia  which  still  exist  bear  witness 
to  the  elegance  of  the  taste  which  adorned  them.  In  speak- 
ing of  these  remains,  we  shall  find  opportunity  to  introduce 
some  further  account  of  the  Eoman  banquets.  We  must  now 
pass  on  to  those  apartments  which  are  yet  undescribed. 

CEci,  from  otKos,  a  house,  were  spacious  halls  or  saloons, 
borrowed  from  the  Greeks.  (Eci,  like  atria,  were  divided 
into  tetrastyle  and  Corinthian ;  another  sort  was  termed 
Egyptian.  They  are  directed  to  have  the  same  proportions 
as  triclinia,  but  to  be  made  larger,  inasmuch  as  they  are  orna- 
mented with  columns,  which  triclinia  are  not.  In  the 
Corinthian  oeci  there  was  but  one  row  of  pillars  in  height, 
supporting  the  architrave,  cornice,  and  a  vaulted  roof.  The 
Egyptian  were  more  splendid,  and  more  like  basilicae,  it  is 
said,  than  Corinthian  triclinia.  In  them  the  pillars  su23ported 
a  gallery  with  paved  floor,  open  to  the  sky,  forming  a  walk 
round  the  apartment ;  and  above  this  lower  range  a  second 
range  of  pillars  was  placed,  a  fourth  part  less  in  height,  which 

*  The  common  furniture  of  a  triclinium  was  three  couches,  placed  on  three 
sides  of  a  square  table,  each  containing  three  persons,  in  accordance  witli  the 
favourite  maxim,  that  a  party  should  not  consist  of  more  than  the  Muses  nor 
of  fewer  than  the  Graces,  not  more  than  nine  nor  less  than  three.  Where  such 
numbers  were  entertained,  couches  must  have  been  placed  along  the  sides  oi 
long  tables. 

+  Palais  de  Scaurus,  chap.  ix.  p.  210. 


DOMESTIC  ARGHITECTUEE  OF  ITALY. 


261 


supported  the  roof.  The  interstices  between  the  pillars  were 
closed  by  walls,  for  windows  are  directed  to  be  made  between 
them.  Another  sort  of  cecus,  called  by  the  Greeks  cyzicene,  is 
said  not  to  have  been  generally  used  in  Italy  ;  but  some  rooms 
answering  to  the  description  have  been  found  at  Pompeii. 
They  w^ere  meant  for  summer  use,  looking  to  the  north,  and  if 
possible  facing  gardens,  to  which  they  opened  by  folding  doors. 
Their  length  and  width  should  be  such,  that  two  triclinia, 
or  tables,  with  their  couches,  facing  each  other,  may  be  placed 
in  them,  with  ample  room  for  the  servants  to  pass  round. 

Pinacotheca,  the  picture-gallery,  and  Bibliotheca,  the 
library,  need  no  explanation.  The  latter  w\as  usually  small, 
as  a  large  number  of  rolls  {volumina)  could  be  contained 
within  a  narrow  space. 

Exedra  bore  a  double  signification.  It  is  either  a  seat, 
intended  to  contain  a  number  of  persons,  like  those  before  the 
Gate  of  Hcrculaneum,  or  a  spacious  hall  for  conversation  and 
the  general  purposes  of  society.  In  the  public  baths,  the 
word  is  especially  applied  to  those  apartments  w^hich  were 
frequented  by  the  philosophers. 

Of  baths,  a  frequent  adjunct  to  private  houses,  there  is  no 
occasion  to  say  anything  more  than  has  been  already  stated. 

Such  was  the  arrangement,  such  the  chief  apartments  of  a 
Eoman  house ;  they  were  on  the  ground-floor,  the  upper 
stories  being  for  the  most  part  left  to  the  occupation  of  slaves, 
frecdmen,  and  the  lower  branches  of  the  family.  We  must 
except,  however,  the  terrace  upon  the  top  of  all  (solarium),  a 
favourite  place  of  resort,  often  adorned  with  rare  flowers  and 
shrubs,  planted  in  huge  cases  of  earth,  and  with  fountains 
and  trellises,  under  which  the  evening  meal  might  at  pleasure 
be  taken. 

The  reader  will  not,  of  course,  suppose  that  in  all  houses 
all  these  apartments  were  to  be  found,  and  in  the  same  order. 
From  the  confined  dwelling  of  the  tradesman  to  the  palace  of 
the  patrician,  all  degrees  of  accommodation  and  elegance 
were  to  be  found.  The  only  object  of  this  long  catalogue  is 
to  familiarize  the  reader  with  the  general  type  of  those 
objects  which  we  are  about  to  present  to  him,  and  to  explain 
at  once,  and  collectively,  those  terms  of  art  which  will  be  of 
most  frequent  occurrence. 

The  reader  will  gain  a  clear  idea  of  a  Eoman  house  from 


262 


POMPEII. 


the  ground-plan  of  that  of  Pansa,  given  in  a  subsequent 
chapter,  which  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  regularly 
constructed  at  Pompeii. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  subjoin  the  principles  laid 
down  by  Vitruvius  for  giving  to  each  apartment  an  aspect 
appropriate  to  its  use,  and  his  observations  on  the  quality  of 
accommodation  which  was  requisite  for  the  several  classes  of 
Roman  citizens. 

"  The  winter  eating-rooms  and  winter  baths  ought,"  he 
says,  "  to  face  the  winter  west^*  for  they  are  to  be  used  in 
the  afternoon,  and  require  both  light  and  heat  at  that  time  of 
the  day.  Bedchambers  and  libraries  should  front  the  east, 
an  aspect  suited  for  the  better  preservation  of  books,  for  the 
southern  and  westerly  winds  are  most  laden  with  moisture, 
and  tend  to  generate  damp  and  moths.  The  spring  and 
autumn  triclinia  should  also  look  to  the  east,  the  summer 
triclinium  to  the  north,  that  the  former  may  enjoy  a  temperate, 
the  latter  as  cool  an  atmosphere  as  can  be  gained.  Picture- 
galleries  and  looms  for  painting  and  embroidery  should  also 
look  to  the  north,  because  the  colours  used  in  this  work  retain 
their  brilliancy  longer  when  exposed  only  to  a  regular  and 
constant  light. 

"  The  next  thing  to  be  considered  is  by  what  rules  we  are 
to  be  directed  in  laying  out  the  private  parts  of  houses,  and 
how  they  should  be  connected  with  the  public  part.  For 
those  parts  are  private  into  which  strangers  enter  not  except 
by  invitation,  as  the  chambers,  triclinia,  baths,  and  the  like. 
Other  parts  are  common,  and  any  one  may  enter  them 
uninvited,  as  the  vestibule,  cavsedium,  peristyle,  &c.f  To 
men  of  ordinary  fortune,  therefore,  magnificent  vestibules, 
and  tablina,  and  atria,  are  needless,  for  they  attend  on  others 
instead  of  being  attended  at  home.  Those  who  sell  their 
rural  produce  require  shops  and  stables  at  the  entrances  of 
their  houses, granaries  and  storehouses  below,  and  other 

*  "  Hyberna  triclinia  et  balnearia  occidentem  hybernum  spectent." — Vit. 
lib.  vi.  cap.  7. 

t  This  mention  of  the  peristyle  seems  at  variance  with  the  distribution  of 
Mazois,  in  accordance  with  whcse  authority  we  have  above  ranlced  the  peristyle 
among  the  private  apartments. 

X  Several  instances  of  this  annngement  are  observable  at  Pompeii.  The 
shops  for  disposing  of  the  master's  produce  always  communicate  with  the 
interior  of  the  house. 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  ITALY. 


263 


arrangements  whicli  tend  more  to  use  than  to  beauty.  The 
houses  of  money-lenders  and  of  those  who  farm  the  revenue, 
should  be  handsomer  and  secured  from  attacks.  Lawyers 
and  public  speakers  require  more  elegant  accommodation,  and 
rooms  that  may  receive  a  large  assembly.  For  nobles  who 
hold  the  offices  and  honours  of  the  state,  and  consequently  are 
exposed  to  a  crowd  of  suitors,  regal  vestibules,  high  halls,  and 
spacious  peristyles  are  necessary,  with  plantations  and  exten- 
sive walks,  laid  out  with  every  attention  to  magnificence. 
They  should  also  have  libraries,  picture-galleries,  and  basilicae 
laid  out  upon  the  scale  of  public  buildings,  for  in  their 
mansions  both  public  business  and  private  suits  are  often 
decided."  * 

There  are  preserved  in  the  Capitoline  Museum  at  Rome 
some  curious  fragments  of  a  plan  of  Rome  engraved  on 


Fragment  of  a  Plan  of  Rome,  engraved  on  marble. 

1.  Prothyra,  or  vestibules ;  2.  Tuscan  atria;  3.  AL^a,  or  wings;  4.  P'auces; 
5.  Peristyles ;  6.  Inner  apartments ;  7.  Shops. 

marble,  about  the  time  of  Septimius  Severus.  Mazois  refers 
to  them,  in  proof  that  the  houses  at  Pompeii  are  in  their 
origin  and  disposition  Roman  houses,  and  not  Grecian,  as  has 
been  generally  supposed  from  the  Grecian  taste  which  prevails 
in  the  architecture  and  decorations.  The  constant  recurrence 


*  Vitruv,  vi.  7,  8. 


264 


POMPEII. 


of  the  atrium,  wliich  was  not  found  in  the  Greek  houses,  leaves 
in  his  opinion  no  doubt  upon  this  subject.  We  copy  one  of 
these  fragments^  both  as  a  curious  relic,  and  that  the  reader 
may  have  the  opportunity  of  judging  for  himself  of  the 
resemblance  in  general  arrangement  between  the  three  ground- 
plans  contained  in  it,  and  those  which  we  shall  give  hereafter 
from  Pompeii. 

We  may  here  add  a  few  observations,  derived,  as  well  as 
much  of  the  preceding  matter,  from  the  valuable  work  of 
Mazois,  relative  to  the  materials  and  method  of  construction 
of  the  Pompeian  houses.  Every  species  of  masonry  described 
by  Yitruvius,  it  is  said,  may  here  be  met  with ;  but  the 
cheapest  and  least  durable  sorts  have  been  generally  preferred, 
and  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  private,  and  many  of  the 
public  edifices  are  built  of  bricks,  or  of  the  rough  masonry 
called  opus  incertum.  Hence  arises  their  rapid  decay  on 
being  exposed  to  the  air.  The  mortar  also,  upon  which  such 
edifices  must  entirely  depend  for  their  stability,  does  not 
possess  that  remarkalile  hardness  which  is  so  often  seen  in 
ancient  works ;  a  fault  attributed  by  some  to  the  bad  quality 
of  its  component  parts :  by  others  to  the  baking  which  it 
received  when  enveloped  in  the  heated  cinders.  But  as  the 
exterior  decorative  stuccos  have  received  no  damage  from 
this  cause,  it  seems  more  likely  that  carelessness  in  the 
choice  of  the  materials,  or  in  working  them  together,  has 
produced  this  badness  of  quality. 

Copper,  iron,  lead,  have  been  found  employed  for  the  same 
purposes  as  those  for  which  we  now  use  them.  Iron  is  more 
plentiful  than  copper,  contrary  to  what  is  generally  observed 
in  ancient  works.  It  is  evident  from  articles  of  furniture, 
&c.,  found  in  the  ruins,  that  the  Italians  were  highly  skilled 
in  the  art  of  working  metals,  yet  they  seem  to  have  excelled 
in  ornamental  work,  rather  than  in  the  solid  and  neat  con- 
struction of  useful  articles.  For  instance,  their  lock-work  is 
coarse,  hardly  equal  to  that  which  is  now  executed  in  the 
same  country  ;  while  the  external  ornaments  of  doors,  bolts, 
handles,  &c.,  are  elegantly  wrought.    We  give  specimens  of 


Ancient  Bolt. 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  ITALY. 


265 


some  of  these.  The  key  was  found  in  Pompeii,  and  from  its 
size  seems  to  have  been  a  door-key.     The  bolt  is  preserved 


in  the  Museum  at  Naples.  The  hinge  and  door-handles,  one 
of  which  is  remarkably  rich,  are  from  various  authorities. 


Not  a  single  wooden  door  has  been  preserved  in  Pompeii.  The 
panelling  of  that  which  we  give,  as  restored  by  Mazois,  is 
taken  from  a  marble  door  in  the  Street  of  Tombs,  together 
with  the  ring  which  served  as  a  handle.  Almost  all  the  door- 
ways in  Pompeii  are  nearly  of  the  same  size  and  form,  a  little 
more  or  less  care  in  the  execution  of  capitals  and  entablatures 


266 


POMPEII. 


Door  of  a  private  dwelling  restored. 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  ITALY. 


267 


making  all  the  difference  between  them.  They  seem  usually 
to  have  been  bivalve,  to  have  turned  on  pivots,  not  on  hinges, 
and  to  have  been  closed  by  one  or  two  large  bolts,  such  as 
that  above  represented,  received  into  the  threshold.  We 
may  infer  from  a  number  of  false  doors  painted  on  walls,  that 
their  colour  was  generally  dark.  Their  carpentry  seems  to 
have  been  very  simple ;  often  beams  were  not  even  squared. 
The  carbonized  timbers  discovered  seem  to  intimate  that  fir- 
wood  was  in  most  '  general  use.  Doors  were  sometimes 
adorned  with  large  nails  having  gilt  heads.  They  had 
knockers,  or  perhaps  more  generally  bells,  as  may  be  inferred 
from  a  passage  of  Suetonius,  in  which  he  alludes  to  an  idea 
of  Augustus,  to  make  Jupiter  Tonans,  whose  temple  was  on 
the  ascent  to  the  Capitol,  appear  as  the  porter  of  the  Capitoline 
Jove,  by  affixing  bells  to  it.*  Eoman  doors  always  opened 
inside,  or  into  the  house ;  to  have  a  door  that  opened  out- 
wards, or  into  the  street,  was  a  peculiar  privilege  accorded  to 
Valerius  Publicola.  The  door  was  a  peculiar  object  of  Eoman 
superstition  ;  it  was  under  the  protection  of  four  divinities : 
Janus,  who  jiresided  over  the  w^iole  gateway ;  Forculus,  the 
protector  of  the  fores,  or  two  doors  ;  Limentinus,  who  watched 
over  the  limen,  or  threshold  ;  and  Cardca,  the  special  patroness 
of  the  car  dines  or  hinges.  To  enter  a  doorway  with  the  left 
foot  was  considered  a  bad  omen ;  on  which  account  a  boy 
seems  to  have  been  sometimes  specially  appointed  to  admonish 
visitors  to  put  the  right  foot  forwards.^ 

Very  little  costly  decoration  is  to  be  found  in  the  houses, 
with  the  excej)tion  of  mosaic  pavements,  wdiich  are  numerous 
and  beautiful ;  even  in  the  public  buildings  marble  is  of  rare 
occurrence.  Its  place,  however,  was  not  inadequately  filled 
by  a  stucco  of  great  beauty,  equally  adapted  to  receive  paint- 
ings, or  to  be  modelled  into  bas-reliefs.  No  marble  wainscot- 
ings  or  columns  hewn  from  single  blocks  are  seen  in  the  atria 
of  Pompeii  ;  but  in  their  place  there  is  a  gaiety  and  capricious 
elegance,  of  which  but  a  very  inadequate  idea  can  be  conveyed 
4  by  description,  aided  by  the  wood  engravings  which  we  are 
able  to  present.  The  walls  are  carefully  prepared  for  the  re- 
ception of  this  stucco  by  several  coats  of  a  coarser  plaster, 

*  Sn.eton.  Aug.  91. 

t  Exclamavit  puer  qui  super  hoc  officium  erat  positus,  Dextro  pede.  Petroii. 
Sat.  30. 


268 


POMPEII. 


made  of  lime,  and  tlie  sand  called  pozzolana.  The  stucco 
itself  was  called  alharium,  from  its  whiteness,  or  ojnis  mar- 
mGratum,  from  its  resemblance  to  marble.  It  seems  to  have 
been  made  of  calcined  gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  mixed 
with  pulverized,  but  not  calcined  stone,  and,  in  the  more  ex- 
pensive sort,  with  powdered  marble^  Traces  left  on  some 
unfinished  work  intimate  that  it  was  spread  with  an  instrument 
resembling  that  which  our  plasterers  use.  A  difference  in 
quality,  and  an  economy  in  the  use  of  it,'  is  observable,  which 
make  it  probable  that  the  expense  varied  greatly  according  to 
the  fineness  of  the  material.  Not  only  is  the  stucco  coarser 
in  mean  habitations,  but  where  the  quality  is  good  in  general, 
it  is  found  coarser  in  those  places  which  are  least  exposed  to 
view.  Yitruvius  recommends  that  it  should  be  of  considerable 
thickness  ;  not  less,  he  says,  than  three  coats.*  Yet  on  the 
columns  of  the  oldest  temple  in  Pompeii,  the  Greek  temple, 
we  see  a  stucco  of  extreme  beauty,  harder  than  stone,  and  not 
more  than  a  line  in  thickness.  The  temples  at  Psestum  have 
received  a  coat  still  thinner,  and  Mazois  has  expressed  an 
opinion  founded  on  his  personal  observation,  that  the  stucco 
will  be  found  thinner  in  j^roportion  to  the  age  of  the  building, 
and  that  thick  stuccos  intimate  a  late  date,  and  the  decline  of 
the  art. 

Ornamental  work  in  relief  was  formed  either  by  modelling 
or  by  stamping  with  a  mould.  The  latter  method  was  used 
for  cornices,  borders,  and  other  works  where  the  same  pattern 
was  repeated.  The  joinings  of  the  moulds  are  often  visible, 
as  in  a  printed  muslin  where  the  ends  of  the  blocks  have  not 
been  accurately  fitted.  We  may  conjecture  that  the  stucco 
was  dashed  in  a  mass  on  the  wet  plaster,  the  mould  forcibly 
applied,  and  form  and  adhesion  thus  given  by  a  single  opera- 
tion. A  bas-relief,  or  a  pattern  of  uncertain  form,  was 
modelled  by  hand.  The  workman  traced  the  outline  of  his 
design  upon  the  plaster,  and  proceeded  to  fill  it  up  with 
stucco  worked  to  pro2:>er  consistency,  as  our  sculptors  model  a 
design  in  clay.  But  as  the  plastic  matter  soon  set,  and  when 
set  was  incapable  of  alteration  or  addition,  no  small  skill  was 
requisite  to  execute  the  varied  designs,  of  which  a  number  of 
examples  have  already  been  given.     The  difficulties  of  this 


*  vii.  3. 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  ITALY. 


269 


•art  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  of  fresco  painting,  in  which 
it  is  well  known  none  but  the  greatest  masters  have  suc- 
ceeded. 

For  the  common  floors  a  sort  of  composition  was  used,  re- 
sembling probably  the  compost  floors  to  be  seen  in  Welsh 
farm-houses  and  in  the  north  of  England.  A  superior  sort 
was  called  opus  Signinum,  from  Signia,  a  town  celebrated  for 
its  tiles.  In  this  case,  the  plaster  basis  was  thoroughly 
mixed  with  pounded  tile,  which  increased  its  solidity,  and 
gave  it  something  the  appearance  of  red  granite.  Sometimes 
floors  were  inlaid,  while  soft,  with  pieces  of  white  marble,  set 
in  Grecian  frets,  and  intricate  patterns :  sometimes  the 
ground  is  white,  and  the  pattern  is  made  of  lozenge-shaped 
pieces  of  tile.  Grounds  of  other  colours  also  occur,  of  which 
yellow  is  the  most  common.  Sometimes  pieces  of  marble  of 
all  shapes  and  colours  were  imbedded  in  a  composition  ground, 
and  in  these  floors  the  chief  aim  was  to  collect  the  greatest 
possible  variety  of  marbles.*  Such  floors,  which  Pliny  calls 
harharica  or  suhtegulanea,  appear  to  have  been  antecedent  to, 
and  to  have  given  the  first  idea  of,  mosaics,  and  from  the 
method  of  their  construction  is  derived  their  name,  pavimentum, 
from  pavire,  to  ram  down.  An  intermediate  step  between 
these  pavements  and  mosaics  occurs  in  what  Pliny  calls  sca^p- 
turatum,  which  seems  to  have  resembled  inlaid  work ;  a  pat- 
tern being  chiselled  out  in  the  solid  ground,  and  filled  up 
with  thin  leaves  of  coloured  marble.  Mosaic  floors,  as  we 
have  said,  are  frequent  in  the  better  class  of  houses,  and  will 
be  fully  spoken  of  in  the  next  chapter.  Marble  floors  are  of 
rare  occurrence,  and  mostly  destroyed,  even  where  we  can 
ascertain  their  former  existence. 

Of  the  style  and  mechanical  execution  of  the  paintings 
which  have  been  found  in  such  numbers,  we  sliall  here  say 
nothing.  The  subject  is  so  interesting  and  extensive,  that  a 
separate  chapter  will  be  necessary  even  to  a  brief  sketch  of  it. 

Numerous  preparations  of  glass,  in  vases,  drinking-cups, 
and  other  utensils,  have  been  found ;  but  the  most  curious 
discovery  connected  with  this  subject  is,  that  in  the  first  cen- 
tury the  Komans  were  incontestably  acquaiuted  with  the  use 
of  glass  for  windows.    The  first  distinct  testimony  to  this 

*  This  has  leen  imitated  in  the  new  hall  of  tl  e  bronzes,  in  the  Museum  at 
Naples.  • 


270 


POMPEII. 


effect  is  tliat  of  Lactantius,  about  tlie  end  of  tlie  third  century, 
who  speaks  of  windows  fitted  with  shining  glass,  or  talc^* 
and  as  neither  Pliny  nor  Seneca,  who  both  speak  of  windows, 
mention  their  being  composed  of  the  former  material,  a  natural 
conclusion  has  been  drawn  that  as  yet  it  had  not  been  applied 
to  that  purpose.  Pliny's  omission  is  the  more  remarkable, 
because  he  speaks  at  length  of  the  qualities  of  glass  and  of 
the  construction  of  windows.  The  invention  of  transparent 
windows,  of  whatever  materials,  is  inferred,  from  a  passage  of 
Seneca,  not  to  have  been  earlier  than  the  Christian  era.f 
Before  this  time  thin  hides,  prepared  perhaps  like  parchment, 
are  mentioned  as  having  been  employed,  and  probably  plates 
of  horn,  of  which  Pliny  speaks  as  though  they  were  made  into 
lanterns.  Such  imperfect  contrivances  probably  were  only 
brought  into  use  when  inclement  weather  rendered  some  pro- 
tection necessary :  and  the  poor  must  have  been  contented 
with  curtains  or  shutters.  The  transparency  of  talc,  and  the 
readiness  with  which  it  splits  into  the  thinnest  laminae, 
naturally  suggested  to  some  ingenious  person  the  idea  of 
framing  it,  and  thus  at  pleasure  entirely  excluding  the  air ; 
and  hence  its  name  of  Icqns  specularis  :  for  it  seems  much 
more  reasonable  to  conclude  that  sioecidaris  is  derived  from 
the  general  term  specular,  a  ^vindow,  than  that  whenever  the 
word  specular  is  used,  it  is  to  be  understood  as  glazed  with 
the  lapis  specularis,  as  some  authors  have  thought.  Another 
stone  employed  for  the  same  jiurpose  was  called  pliengites. 
from  cfyeyyo?,  light.  Pliny's  account  of  these  two  substances 
runs  as  follows  : — 

"  As  touching  talc,  it  is  by  natui^e  easy  to  be  cloven  into  as 
thin  flakes  as  a  man  will.  This  kind  of  glass  stone  the 
hither  part  of  Spain  only  in  old  time  did  afford  us,  and  the 
same  not  all  throughout,  but  within  the  compass  of  a  hundred 
miles,  namely,  about  the  city  Segobrica;  but  in  these  we 
have  it  from  Cyj^rus,  Cappadocia,  and  Sicily,  and  of  late  it 
has  been  found  in  Barbary  :  howbeit  the  best  glass  stone 
Cometh  from  Spain  and  Capj^adocia,  for  it  is  the  tenderest, 
and  carrieth  the  largest  panels,  although  they  be  not  alto- 
gether the  clearest,  but  somewhat  duskish.    There  be  also  of 

*  De  Opihcio  Dei,  cap.  v. 

t  Qnaedam  nostra  demum  prodiisse  memoria  scimus,  ut  speculariorum 
usum,  perlucente  testa,  claium  trinsmittentium  lumen. — Ep.  90, 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  ITALY.  271 


them  in  Italy,  about  Bologna :  but  tbe  same  be  short  and 
small,  full  of  spots  also,  and  joined  to  pieces  of  flint ;  and  yet, 
it  seemeth  that  in  nature  they  be  much  like  unto  those  that 
in  Spain  be  digged  out  of  pits,  which  they  sink  to  a  great 
depth.  Moreover,  there  is  found  of  this  talc,  enclosed  in  a 
rock,  and  lying  under  the  ground,  which  must  be  hewed  out 
if  a  man  would  have  them.  But  for  the  most  part  it  lieth  in 
manner  of  a  vein  in  the  mine  by  itself,  as  if  it  were  perfectly 
cut  already  by  nature ;  and  yet  was  there  never  any  piece 
known  to  be  above  five  foot  long.  Some  are  of  opinion  that 
it  is  a  liquid  humour  of  the  earth  congealed  to  an  ice,  after 
the  manner  of  crystal.  Certes,  that  it  grow^eth  hard  into  the 
nature  of  a  stone,  may  api^ear  evidently  by  this  :  that  when 
any  wild  beasts  are  chanced  to  fall  into  such  pits  where  this 
glass  stone  is  gotten,  the  very  marrow  of  their  bones  (after 
one  winter)  will  be  converted  and  turned  into  a  stony  sub- 
stance like  to  the  talc  itself.  Otherwhiles  there  is  found  of 
this  kind  which  is  black ;  but  the  white  is  of  a  strange  and 
wonderful  nature,  for  being  (as  it  is  well  known)  tender  and 
brittle,  nothing  more,  yet  it  will  endure  extreme  heats  and 
frozen  cold,  and  never  crack;  nay,  you  shall  never  see  it 
decay  for  age,  keep  it  so  long  as  you  will,  so  that  it  may 
escape  outward  injuries  :  notwithstanding  we  do  see  many 
stones  in  building  laid  wdth  strong  mortar  and  cement,  yet 
subject  to  age.  There  hath  been  devised  also  another  use  of 
talc,  namely,  to  strew  with  i^owder  of  it  the  floor  of  the  great 
circus  in  Eome  during  the  running  of  chariots  and  other  feats 
of  activity  there  performed,  to  the  end  that  their  whiteness 
might  give  a  more  lovely  gloss  to  commend  the  place.  In  the 
days  of  Nero,  late  emperor,  there  was  found  in  Cappadocia  a 
stone  as  hard  as  marble,  white  and  transparent,  even  where  it 
is  marked  with  certain  tawny  streaks  or  spots  :  in  which 
regard,  for  that  it  is  so  resplendent,  it  hath  found  a  name  to 
be  called  phengites.  Of  this  stone  the  said  emperor  caused 
the  Temple  of  Fortune  to  be  built,  called  Seia  (which  King 
Servius  had  first  dedicated),  comprised  within  the  compass  of 
Nero's  golden  house :  and  therefore  when  the  doors  were 
shut  it  was  in  the  interior  as  light  as  day  ;  yet  so  as  if  all  the 
light  were  enclosed  wdthin  it,  and  not  let  in  from  the  air 
through  the  windows.  Moreover,  King  Juba  writeth,  that  in 
Arabia  there  is  a  certain  stone  found,  transparent  like  glass, 


272 


POMPEII. 


whereof  the  inhabitants  of  those  parts  do  make  their  mirrors 
or  looking-glasses."  * 

Pliny  sj^eaks  of  vitrece  camerce,  glassy  chambers,  an  expres- 
sion the  exact  meaning  of  which  is  doubtful ;  but  is  in  general 
understood  to  mean  rooms  lined  or  wainscoted  with  glass. 
We  have  met  with  a  passage,  which,  if  the  facts  contained  in 
it  were  more  certainly  related,  would  go  far  to  decide  the 
question ;  and  vague  as  the  information  is,  it  is  still  worth 
extracting.  "  I  received  a  letter  from  my  learned  correspon- 
dent at  Eome,  Abate  Venuti,  dated  Dec.  30th,  1759,  wherein 
he  informs  me  that  he  had  lately  read  in  some  anecdotes  of 
Cardinal  Maximin,  '  that  as  they  were  digging  on  the  ruins 
on  Mount  Ccelius  in  the  last  century,  they  found  a  room 
belonging  to  an  antique  dwelling-house,  that  had  all  its  sides 
within  ornamented  with  plates  of  glass,  some  of  them  tinged 
with  various  colours,  others  of  their  own  natural  hue,  which 
was  dusky,  occasioned  by  the  thickness  of  the  mass  of  which 
they  consisted.  There  were  likewise  in  the  same  apartment 
window-frames  composed  of  marble,  and  glazed  with  laminae 
of  glass.'  But  as  the  Abate  did  not  take  upon  himself  to 
ascertain  the  real  age  of  this  building,  I  shall  not  pretend  to 
lay  any  greater  stress  on  this  discovery  than  I  did  on  the  ob- 
servation for  the  sake  of  which  I  produced  it,  for  proving  the 
point  I  had  then  in  view,  viz.,  that  the  usage  of  glass  for 
windows  was  j)robably  nearly  of  the  same  antiquity  with  that 
of  adorning  houses  with  it."  | 

*  Pliny,  translated  by  Holland,  xxxvi.  22  (45,  46). 

f  The  carious  reader  will  find  this  passage,  with  a  more  detailed  considera- 
tion of  the  subject,  in  two  papers  relative  to  the  antiquity  of  glass  windows,  by 
Mr.  Nixon.— Phil.  Transact,  vol.  1.  p.  601  ;  lii.  123. 


Doric  Capital,  cut  in  tufa  and  covered  wirh  colourpd  stucco.    The  stucco  having 
partially  fallen,  the  carving  beneath  it  is  shown. 


273 


Biga  ;  from  the  arabesques. 


CHAPTER  II. 

POMPEIAN  ART 

The  most  remarkable  objects  with  wliieli  the  interiors  of 
Pompeii  reward  the  labour  of  excavation  are  paintings  and 
mosaics.  Frequent  mention  of  these  branches  of  art  will  bo 
made  in  the  course  of  this  work,  and  it  seems  expedient 
therefore  to  collect  in  a  prefatory  chapter  such  information 
respecting  them  as  has  been  gathered  by  the  diligence  of 
learned  men  either  from  personal  observation,  or  from  the 
scattered  notices  of  ancient  writers.  The  subject  of  working 
in  mosaic  will  not  occupy  us  long.  The  art  is  still  exercised 
with  success  at  least  equal  to  that  of  the  Eoman  workmen, 
as  is  proved  by  the  magnificent  copies  of  some  of  the  best 
pictures  of  Italian  masters  recently  executed  in  the  Vatican. 
The  most  remarkable  circumstance  connected  with  the  practice 
of  it  in  ancient  times  is  the  profusion  with  which  mosaics 
were  produced,  insomuch  that  the  dwellings  of  a  second-rate 
town  abound  in  specimens  rich  enough  to  be  transferred  to 
the  palaces  of  Naples,  and  to  be  enumerated  among  their 
most  precious  ornaments.  The  expense  of  such  works  is  now 
so  great  that  they  are  rarely  to  be  seen  even  in  palaces. 

The  mosaics  of  Pompeii  are  chiefly  composed  of  black  frets, 
or  meandering  patterns,  on  a  white  ground,  or  white  ones  on 
a  black  ground  :  some  of  them,  however,  arc  executed  in 

T 


274 


POMPEII. 


coloured  marbles.  We  may  refer  to  Mr.  Donaldson's  work 
on  Pompeii,  which  contains  coloured  drawings  of  several,  for 
a  better  notion  of  these  beautiful  floors  than  our  means 
enable  us  to  give.  In  the  same  work  are  contained  the  plans 
of  eight  others,  all  elegant,  and  most  of  them  intricate,  taken 
ftom  the  suburban  villa ;  one  of  which  is  remarkable  for 
being  surrounded  by  a  city  wall  with  gates  and  towers ; 
probably  taken  from  that  which  then  existed  at  Pompeii. 
The  materials  of  which  they  are  chiefly  composed,  are  small 
pieces  of  black  and  white  marble,  and  red  tile,  some  larger 
than  others  ( ^  <^ ),  so  as  to  take  deeper  hold  in  the  mortar  than 
the  rest,  and  thus  form  a  sort  of  bonding  course,  which  gave 
stability  to  the  whole.  These  were  set  in  a  very  fine  cement, 
laid  upon  a  deep  bed  of  mortar,  which  served  as  a  base.  The 
history  of  their  introduction,  and  the  method  of  preparing  the 
foundation  on  which  they  were  laid,  are  thus  told  by  Pliny  : — 
"  Painted  floors*  were  first  used  by  the  Greeks,  who  made 
and  coloured  them  with  much  care,  until  they  were  driven 
out  by  the  mosaic  floors  called  lithostrota.  The  most  famous 
workman  in  this  kind  was  Sosus,  who  wrought  at  Pergamus 
the  pavement  which  is  called  asarotus  oikos,  the  unswept  hall, 
made  of  quarrels  or  square  tesserae  of  different  colours,  in 
such  a  way  as  to  resemble  the  crumbs  and  scraps  that  fell 
from  the  table,  and  such-like  things  as  usually  are  swept 
away,  as  if  they  were  still  left  by  negligence  upon  the  pave- 
ment. There  also  is  admirably  represented  a  dove  drinking, 
in  such  a  way  that  the  shadow  of  her  head  is  cast  on  the 
water.  Other  doves  are  seen  sitting  on  the  brim  of  the  vessel 
preening  themselves  and  basking  in  the  sun.  The  first  paved 
floors  which  came  into  use  were  those  called  barbarica  and 
subtegulanea,  which  were  beaten  down  with  rammers,  as  may 
be  known  by  the  name  pavimentum,  from  pavire,  to  ram. 
The  pavements  called  scalpturata  were  first  introduced  into 
Italy  in  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  after  the  beginning 
of  the  third  Punic  war.  But  ere  the  Cimbric  wars  began, 
such  pavements  were  in  common  use  at  Kome,  and  men  took 
great  delight  and  pleasure  therein. 

*  These  seem  to  have  been  mei'ely  floors  made  of  stucco,  and  painted,  like 
the  sides  of  walls,  of  a  similar  colour.  It  is  not  impossible,  however,  but  that 
tiiey  may  have  been  painted  in  patterns,  and  with  various  colours,  and  that 
the  idea  of  mosaics  was  derived  from  thence. 


POMPEIAN  ART. 


^75 


"  For  galleries  and  terraces  open  to  the  sky,  they  were 
devised  by  the  Greeks,  who,  enjoying  a  warm  climate,  used 
to  cover  their  houses  with  them ;  but  where  the  rain  waters 
freeze,  pavements  of  this  sort  are  not  to  be  trusted.  To 
make  a  terrace  of  this  sort,  it  is  necessary  to  lay  two  courses 
of  boards,  one  athwart  the  other,  the  ends  of  which  ought  to 
be  nailed,  that  they  should  not  twist  nor  warp  ;  which  done, 
take  two  parts  of  new  rubbish,  and  one  of  tiles  stamped  to 
powder  ;  then  with  other  three  parts  of  old  rubbish  mix  two 
parts  of  lime,  and  herewith  lay  a  bed  of  a  foot  thickness, 
taking  care  to  ram  it  hard  together.  Over  this  must  be  laid 
a  bed  of  mortar,  six  fingers  thick,  and  upon  this  middle  couch, 
large  paving- tiles,  at  least  two  fingers  deep.  This  sort  of 
pavement  is  to  be  made  to  rise  to  the  centre  in  the  j)roportion 
of  one  inch  and  a  half  to  ten  feet.  Being  thus  laid,  it  is  to 
be  planed  and  polished  diligently  with  some  hard  stone  ; 
but,  above  all,  regard  is  to  be  had  that  the  boarded  floor  be 
made  of  oak.  As  for  such  as  do  start  or  warp  any  way,  they 
be  thought  naught.  Moreover,  it  were  better  to  lay  a  course 
of  flint  or  chafl'  between  it  and  the  lime,  to  the  end  that  the 
lime  may  not  have  so  much  force  to  hurt  the  board  underneath 
it.  It  were  also  well  to  put  at  the  bottom  a  bed  of  round 
pebbles. 

"  And  here  I  must  not  forget  another  kind  of  those  pave- 
ments which  are  called  Graecanica,  the  manner  of  which  is 
this  : — Upon  a  floor  well-beaten  with  rammers,  is  laid  a  bed 
of  rubbish,  or  else  broken  tile-shards,  and  then  upon  it  a  couch 
of  charcoal,  well  beaten,  and  driven  close  together,  with  sand, 
and  lime,  and  small  cinders,  well  mixed  together,  to  the 
thickness  of  half  a  foot,  well  levelled ;  and  this  has  the 
appearance  of  an  earthen  floor ;  but,  if  it  be  polished  with  a 
hard  smooth  stone,  the  whole  pavement  will  seem  all  black. 
As  for  those  jjavements  called  lithostrota,  which  are  made  of 
divers  coloured  squares  or  dice,  they  came  into  use  in  Sylla'i 
time,  who  made  one  at  Praeneste,  in  the  temple  of  Fortune, 
which  pavement  remaineth  to  be  seen  at  this  day."* 

It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  the  Eoman  villa  at  North- 
leigh,  in  Oxfordshire,  examined  and  described  by  Mr.  Hake- 
wiU,  abounded  with  beautiful  pavements.    The  substratum 


*  Plin.  xxxvi. 


276 


POMPEII. 


of  one  of  these,  which  had  been  broken,  was  investigated, 
when  it  was  found  that  the  natural  soil  had  been  removed  to 
a  depth  of  near  seven  feet,  and  the  space  filled  up  with  mate- 
rials which  bear  a  near  resemblance  to  those  which  Pliny 
recommends.  The  section  is  thus  given  by  Mr.  Hakewill  :— 

ft.  in. 

Plaster  in  which  the  tesserse  are  set.    ...  0  9 

btone  pitching   0  9 

Ashes  and  residue  of  burnt  matter  ....  1  3 

Soil,  &c   10 

Rough  stone  rubble   10 

Dirt,  ashes,  oyster-shells,  broken  pots,  &c.     .  1  9 

Below  this  is  the  natural  soil. 

A  specimen  of  the  coarser  sort  of  mosaic  pavement  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  Townley  Gallery,  in  the  British  Museum. 

Some  very  remarkable  mosaic  pavements  have  been  found 


Mosaic  Picture  by  Dioscorides  of  Samos. 


in  Pompeii,  which  may  truly  be  called  pictures  in  mosaic, 
and  surpass  in  beauty  any  specimens  which  have  been  found 


POMPEIAN  ART. 


277  ' 


elsewhere.  One  of  these  has  been  drawn  and  described  in 
p.  203,  Part  I. :  it  occupied  the  central  compartment  in  the 
tablinum  of  the  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet.  Another  was  found 
in  the  house  called  the  Villa  of  Cicero,  without  the  walls,  in 
April,  1762  which,  the  first  and  only  picture  of  the  kind 
which  had  then  been  brought  to  light,  became  a  wonder  to 
all  who  understood  ancient  art,  and  could  appreciate  its 
merits ;  and  was  esteemed  one  of  the  most  precious  orna- 
ments of  the  royal  collection.  The  picture  represents  a 
scene  containing  four  masked  figures,  playing  upon  various 
instruments ;  a  tambourine,  cymbals,  the  double  pipe,  and 
the  Pandean  pipe  ;  a  selection  not  unlike  the  equipment  of  a 
Pandean  band  in  modern  times.  The  drapery  is  elegant  and 
well  folded,  and  the  whole  composition  is  excellently  grouped 
and  drawn  with  precision.  It  is  formed  of  very  small  pieces 
of  glass,  of  the  most  beautiful  colours,  and  of  various  shades. 
The  hair,  the  small  leaves  which  ornament  the  masks,  and 
the  eyebrows,  are  expressed  so  delicately  as  almost  to  escape 
observation.  An  additional  curiosity  is  given  to  this  valuable 
relic  by  the  name  of  the  painter,  which  is  worked  in  it  at  the 
top  in  black  letters— AI02KOYPIAH2 .  2AMI02 .  EnOIH^E 
(Dioscorides  of  Samos  wrought  this).  Winckelmann  says  that 
a  good  copy  of  this  was  found  at  StabisB,  in  the  year  1759.f 

Another  and  a  still  more  remarkable  mosaic  was  dis- 
covered in  the  House  of  the  Faun,  and  is  perhaps  the  most 
beautiful  and  magnificent  specimen  of  the  art  that  has  yet 
been  found.  This  mosaic,  which  is  now  preserved  in  the 
museum  at  Naples,  is  about  eighteen  feet  long  by  nine 
broad.  The  subject  represents  a  battle  between  Greeks  and 
barbarians,  the  latter  apparently  of  eastern  race ;  but  a 
variety  of  conjectures  have  been  hazarded  as  to  what  battle  is 
actually  depicted.  Some  have  seen  in  it  the  combat  between 
Patroclus  and  Sarpedon,  and  the  death  of  the  latter ;  others 
have  recognized  in  it  the  battles  of  the  Granicus,  of  Arbela, 
of  Plataea,  of  Marathon,  &c.  But  the  opinion  most  commonly 
adopted  is  that  of  Professor  Quaranta,  who  refers  the  picture 
to  the  battle  of  Issus.  The  Grecian  leader,  supposed  to 
represent  Alexander  the  Great,  is  drawn  with  great  beauty 
and  vigour.    Charging,  bareheaded,  in  the  midst  of  the  fight, 

*  Pomp.  Ant.  Hist.  t.  i.  p.  150  ;  and  Fasc.  ii.  p.  105. 
t  Mus.  Borb.  vol.  iv.  pi.  34. 


278 


POMPEII. 


he  has  transfixed  with  his  lance  one  of  the  Persian  leaders, 
whose  horse,  wounded  in  the  shoulder,  had  already  fallen. 
The  expression  of  physical  agony  in  the  countenance  of  the 
wounded  man  is  admirably  depicted.  Another  horse,  which 
an  attendant  had  brought  for  him,  has  arrived  too  late.  The 
death  of  the  Persian  general  has  evidently  decided  the  fortune 
of  the  day.  In  the  background,  the  Persian  spears  are  still 
directed  against  the  advancing  Greeks.  But  at  the  sight  of 
the  fallen  general,  another  Persian  leader  in  a  quadriga,  who, 
from  the  richness  of  his  dress  and  accoutrements,  the  height 
of  his  tiara,  and  his  red  chlamys,  is  probably  Darius  himself, 
stretches  forth  his  right  hand  in  an  attitude  of  alarm  and 
despair,  while  the  charioteer  urges  his  horses  to  precipitate 
flight.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  vigour  with  which  both  men 
and  animals  are  depicted  in  this  unequalled  mosaic.  If  the 
Grecian  hero  really  represents  Alexander  the  Great,  the 
mosaic  may  probably  be  a  copy  of  a  picture  by  Apelles, 
the  only  artist  privileged  to  paint  the  Macedonian  conqueror. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  the  work  has  suffered  much  damage  on 
the  left  side,  or  that  which  contains  the  Grecian  host.  It 
was,  however,  in  this  mutilated  state  when  discovered,  and 
seems  to  have  been  under  a  process  of  reparation.  The 
border  represents  a  river,  apparently  the  Nile,  with  a 
crocodile,  hippopotamus,  ichneumon,  ibises,  &c. ;  whence 
some  have  been  led  to  think  that  the  mosaic  is  a  copy  of  a 
picture  on  the  same  subject  known  to  have  been  painted  by 
a  female  Egyptian  artist  named  Helena,  and  brought  to 
Eome  by  Vespasian. 

Although  the  designs  of  many  of  the  ancient  mosaics 
remain  unrivalled,  yet  the  execution  of  them  by  no  means 
equals  the  best  efforts  of  modern  art.* 

The  subject  of  ancient  painting  will  occupy  a  greater  share 
of  our  attention.  We  shall  not  enter  into  any  antiquarian  dis- 
cussions concerning  the  first  exercise  of  a  faculty  which  seems 
almost  as  natural  to  man  as  the  use  of  words ;  nor  attempt  to 
give  a  history  of  ancient  art,  which  would  lead  to  a  long 
digression  little  connected  mth  Italian  history,  and  not  very 
edifying  :  for  though  Pliny  has  collected  a  vast  quantity  of 
amusing  gossip  relative  to  the  Grecian  painters  and  their 

*  The  editor  states  this  on  the  authority  of  an  eminent  professor  of  the  art, ' 
the  Commendatore  Barberi  of  Rome. 


POMPEIAN  ART. 


279 


most  celebrated  works,  this,  in  losing  its  diffuseness,  would 
lose  the  best  part  of  its  merits.  Italy  had  no  school  of  her 
own,  except  the  Etruscan,  which  is  entirely  foreign  to 
Pompeii,  until  she  became  the  rendezvous  of  Grecian  talent. 
The  following  account  is  chiefly  taken  from  our  constant 
guide,  Mazois,  verified,  and  in  some  instances  corrected  and 
enlarged,  by  reference  to  his  originals,  and  to  the  researches 
of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  concerning  the  colours  employed  by 
the  ancients  in  painting.* 

The  custom  of  decorating  walls  with  paintings  may  be 
traced  to  a  most  remote  antiquity,  without  conceding  all  the 
claims  of  the  Egyptians,  who  pretend  to  have  discovered  it 
six  thousand  years  before  the  Greeks.  Without  the  parade 
of  quoting  authorities,  recent  discoveries,  more  especially 
those  of  Belzoni  among  the  royal  tombs,  prove  tlie  existence 
of  both  drawing  and  colouring  among  that  remarkable  nation 
many  centuries  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  The  art  of  por- 
traiture was  not  unknown  to  the  Jews,  as  we  may  infer  from 
a  passage  in  Ezekiel,  xxiii.  14.  Homer  was  acquainted  with 
the  effects  produced  by  contrast  of  colours,  both  in  the 
working  of  metals  and  in  the  labour  of  the  loom-  or  needle ; 
but  we  believe  ho  makes  no  mention  of  painting,  except  with 
respect  to  ships,  which  he  calls  "  vermilion-cheeked. "f  The 
art  of  design  is  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  to  Greece 
in  Corinth,  and  to  have  been  transported  from  Greece  to 
Italy.  This,  however,  to  say  the  least,  is  by  no  means  certain. 
The  Etruscan  tombs  and  vases,  found  in  such  profusion, 
testify  that  at  a  very  remote  period  the  art  of  painting  was 
cultivated  among  the  Italian  nations  with  zeal,  and  not  with- 
out success.  Pliny  speaks  of  paintings  in  a  temple  at  Ardea 
older  than  the  foundation  of  Eome,  and  others  of  equal 
antiquity  at  Lanuvium  and  Cseve ;  a  date  which,  whether  true 
or  false,  will  at  all  events  hardly  command  belief  in  the 
absence  of  all  proof  except  the  historian's  assertion.  The 
first  Grecian  painters  who  came  to  Italy  are  said  to  have  been 
brought  over  by  Demaratus,  the  father  of  Tarquinius  Prisons, 
king  of  Eome.  At  all  events  the  influence  which  Etrm-ia 
exercised  over  the  arts  at  Eome  during  the  reign  of  the  Tar- 

*  Phil.  Transactions,  1815. 

f  bv  yap  KvKKu)necr(rt  veeg  ndpa  /atXroTrapr^ot 

'Ov6'  av8pe^  vrjoiv  ej/t  re'/croves. — Odvss.  ix,  125. 


280 


POMPEII. 


t]^uins  can  hardly  be  questioned ;  and  it  is  about  this  time  there- 
fore at  which  we  may  fix  the  application  of  painting  to  pur- 
poses of  internal  and  external  decoration  in  that  city.  But 
the  first  recorded  specimen  of  Koman  art  was  not  executed 
until  near  two  hundred  years  later,  when  one  of  the  noble 
tribe  of  Fabii  painted  the  Temple  of  the  Goddess  of  Health, 
and  obtained  from  his  performance  the  surname,  Pictor, 
A.  u.  450.  His  performance  commanded  admiration  in  its  day, 
and  was  to  be  seen  until  the  temple  was  burnt  in  the  reign 
of  Claudius.  The  next  artist  mentioned  by  Pliny  is  Pacuvius, 
the  poet,  who,  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  later,  amused  his 
old  age  by  painting  the  Temple  of  Hercules  in  the  Forum 
Boarium.  Until  the  time  of  Augustus,  however,  it  seems  to 
have  been  usual  only  to  paint  the  walls  of  houses  one  single 
colour,  relieved  with  capricious  ornaments.  That  sovereign 
is  said  by  Pliny  to  have  been  the  first  who  thought  of  covering 
whole  walls  with  pictures  and  landscapes.  In  his  time  a 
painter  named  Ludius  invented  that  style  of  decoration  which 
we  now  call  arabesque,  or  grotesque.  It  spread  rapidly, 
insomuch  that  the  baths  of  Titus  and  Livia,  the  remains  dis- 
covered at  Cumae,  Pozzuoli,  Herculaneum,  Stabise,  Pompeii,  in 
short,  whatever  buildings  about  that  date  have  been  found  in 
good  preservation,  afi'ord  numerous  and  beautiful  examples  of 
it.  Yitruvius  was  entirely  out  of  conceit  with  this  sort  of 
ornament,  and  declares  that  such  fanciful  paintings  as  are  not 
founded  in  truth  cannot  be  beautiful ;  but  the  general  voice, 
both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  has  pronounced  a  very 
different  opinion.  It  was  from  the  paintings  found  in  the 
baths  of  Kome  that  Eaphael  derived  the  plan  of  those  beauti- 
ful frescoes  w^hich  have  made  celebrated  the  gallery  of  the 
Vatican ;  and  other  distingniished  artists  of  the  same  era,  the 
golden  period  of  Italian  art,  followed  in  the  path  which  he 
had  struck  out,  until  the  public  and  private  edifices  of  Italy 
were  filled  with  these  elegant  and  varied  designs.  This  style 
derived  its  modern  name  of  grotesque  from  the  subterranean 
rooms  (grotte)  in  which  the  originals  w-ere  usually  found  ; 
rooms  not  built  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  buried  by 
the  gradual  accumulation  of  soil,  and  by  the  ruin  of  the  lofty 
thermte  of  which  they  had  formed  a  part.  Herculaneum  and 
Pompeii  present  as  rich  a  mine  for  modern  artists  to  draw 
from  as  was  possessed  by  the  great  masters  of  the  Italian 


POMPEIAN  ART. 


*281 


school ;  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  tliat  this  method  of  decora- 
tion should  not  supersede  the  perishable,  and  therefore  not 
less  expensive,  hangings  of  silk  and  paper  in  modern  palaces. 

We  may  here  mention  a  strange,  and,  as  far  as  we  know, 
unique  method  of  painting,  of  which  a  few  examples  are 
observable  at  Pompeii,  which  is  described  as  follows  by- 
Sir  W.  Gell.  "  It  is  singular  that  in  many  cases,  though  a 
picture  be  not  ill  preserved,  and  may  be  seen  from  the  most 
convenient  distance,  a  style  of  painting  has  been  adopted, 
which,  though  calculated  to  decorate  the  wall,  is  by  no  means 
intelligible  on  a  nearer  approach.  In  a  chamber  near  the 
entrance  of  the  Chalcidicum,  by  the  statue  of  Eumachia,  is  a 
picture,  in  which,  from  a  certain  distance,  a  town,  a  tent,  and 
something  like  a  marriage  ceremony  might  be  perceived, 
but  which  vanished  into  an  assemblage  of  apparently  un- 
meaning blots,  so  as  to  entirely  elude  the  skill  of  an  artist 
who  was  endeavouring  to  copy  it  at  the  distance  of  three  or 
four  feet.  Another  picture  of  the  same  kind  is  or  was  visible 
in  the  chamber  of  the  Perseus  and  Andromeda.  An  entire 
farm-yard,  with  animals,  a  fountain,  and  a  beggar,  seemed  to 
invite  the  antiquary  to  a  closer  inspection,  which  only  pro- 
duced confusion  and  disappointment,  and  proved  that  the 
picture  could  not  be  copied,  except  by  a  painter  possessing 
the  skill  and  touch  of  the  original  artist.  It  is  probable  that 
those  who  were  in  the  habit  of  painting  these  unreal  pictures 
had  the  art  of  producing  them  with  great  ease  and  expedition, 
and  that  they  served  to  fill  a  compartment  where  greater 
detail  was  judged  unnecessary."* 

*  "This  art  of  representing  the  effect  of  a  picture  upon  a  wall,  instpad  of 
imitating  nature  itself,  is  applied  with  considerable  success  in  the  decoration 
of  certain  modern  Italian  habitations.  The  author  has  seen  in  the  Palazzo 
Sannizzi,  at  Rieti,  a  room  of  magnificent  dimensions,  on  entering  which  a 
visitor  imagines  himself  in  an  apartment  hung  with  green  damask,  and 
decorated  with  a  profusion  of  splendid  pictures.  There  are  Madonnas  and 
Holy  Families,  landscapes,  animals,  and  battle  pieces,  which  recall  at  the 
moment  the  names  and  works  of  the  most  distinguished  artists.  A  further 
examination,  on  a  nearer  approach,  shows  that  no  one  of  the  objects  has  any 
decided  form  or  outline,  or  intelligible  sign.  Not  only  does  the  whole  collection 
consist  in  the  representation  of  pictures,  but  their  seemingly  gold  frames  are 
merely  wooden  mouldings,  roughiy  painted  with  ochre,  most  scantily  touched 
here  and  there,  in  the  prominent  parts,  with  gilding,  to  represent  the  effects  of 
catching  lights.  Behind  each  sham  picture  was  nothing  but  the  white  wall, 
and  the  apparently  rich  silk  hangings  consist  in  a  few  narrow  stripes  of  the 
stuffs  between  the  frames — yet  the  whole  has  a  good  effect."— (Fompeiana, 
second  series,  vol.  i.  p.  165-6.) 


282 


POMPEII. 


Landscapes  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  the  perspective  of 
whicli  is  not  very  accurate,  though  the  ancients  were  by  no 
means  ignorant  of  that  science.  Yitruvius,  in  the  preface  to 
his  eighth  book,  speaks  of  three  Athenians — Agatharcus, 
Democritus,  and  Anaxagoras — who  had  left  treatises  on  linear 
perspective,  and  he  himself  speaks  of  the  radical  principles 
of  the  science ;  that  is,  of  the  point  of  sight,  which  he  calls 
acies  oculorum,  and  the  point  of  distance,  which  he  calls 
oculorum  extensio.  In  the  landscapes  at  Pompeii,  buildings 
usually  form  a  prominent  feature.  They  often  partake  of 
that  indefinite  character  which  we  have  just  described.  One 
of  these  is  given  further  on,  in  the  description  of  the  House 
of  the  Smaller  Fountain. 

The  ancients  painted  on  wood,  cloth,  parchment,  ivory,  and 
plaster,  by  means  of  different  processes.  The  most  esteemed 
of  all  was  the  encaustic  method,  which  was  itself  divided  into 
three.  The  first  was  executed  in  coloured  waxes,  so  prepared 
as  to  be  liquid  enough  to  be  laid  on  cold.  Naphtha,  or  spirit 
of  turpentine,  or  any  volatile  ethereal  oil,  would  be  proper 
menstrua  to  liquify  the  wax,  as  they  would  entirely  evaporate, 
leaving  the  colours  solid  and  firmly  fixed  behind.  The  second 
sort  was  done  with  a  graver  upon  ivory.  It  was  confined  to 
very  small  pictures,  and  probably  held  the  same  station  in 
ancient  as  miniature  in  modern  art.  The  process  consisted  in 
first  sketching  the  subject  with  a  graver  and  then  introducing 
colom's  into  the  lines.*  In  the  third  sort,  colom^ed  wax  was 
melted  by  heat  and  laid  on  warm  with  a  brush.     The  Punic 

*  This  is  Mazois'  explanation.  It  is  not  clear  how  either  of  these  methods 
deserved  the  name  of  encaustic,  burnt  in,  unless  indeed  the  wax  used  for  the 
second  of  them  was  liquified  by  fire :  but  Pliny's  account  is  so  concise,  that 
every  commentator  may  put  a  fresh  construction  upon  it.  "  Encausto  pingendi 
duo  fuisse  antiquitus  genera  constat,  cera  et  in  ebore,  cestro,  id  est  vinculo, 
donee  classes  pmgi  cceperunt"  (xxxv.  41).  In  an  anonymous  French  history  ot 
painting  we  find  the  following  explanation :  "  In  the  fir.-t  method  wax  was 
employed,  tinged  with  various  colours,  and  applied  to  wood,  following  a  sketch 
traced  with  a  hot  iron.  In  the  second,  which  was  done  on  ivory,  not  merely 
the  outline,  but  the  contours  of  the  figures  and  a  general  notion  of  the  whole 
subject  was  given,  by  means  of  a  sharp  heated  tool,  after  which  colours  were 
laid  on  for  the  shade,  leaving  the  ivory  itself  for  the  lights,  and  completing  the 
whole  by  means  of  fire." — (Histoire  de  la  Peinture  Ancienne,  tol.  Lond.  1725, 
Bowyer.)  The  meaning  of  the  last  clause  is  ambiguous  :  perhaps  that  process 
of  melting  the  wax  is  meant  which  is  described  in  the  third  method  of  encaustic 
painting.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  Pliny  makes  no  mention  of  a  hot  tool,  or 
of  the  use  of  fire  in  any  way,  in  speaking  of  the  first  two  methods.  Encaustic 
painting  has  recently  been  tried  in  Germany,  and  it  is  said  with  success. 


POMPEIAN  ART. 


283 


or  Carthaginian  wax  was  considered  the  best.  It  was  pre- 
pared by  bleaching  yellow  wax  for  some  time  in  the  open  air, 
then  seething  it  in  the  purest  sea- water,  taken  up  at  a  distance 
from  shore,  mixed  with  nitre,  and  skimming  off  the  pure 
particles  as  they  rose  to  the  surface.  This  was  again  boiled 
in  sea- water,  and  then  exposed  to  the  sun  and  moon  to  bleach 
again.  If  the  highest  degree  of  purity  was  required  it  was 
boiled  a  third  time.  For  encaustic  painting  it  was  mixed 
with  oil,  to  render  it  more  liquid.  Colours  thus  prepared 
were  found  to  be  perfectly  uninjured  by  the  action  of  the 
weather  or  sea-water,  and  were  therefore  much  used  in 
painting  vessels  and  for  all  sorts  of  out-of-door  wood-work. 
When  it  was  meant  to  apply  one  uniform  coat  of  colour  to  a 
wall,  the  stucco  was  first  suffered  to  dry  completely ;  then  an 
even  coat  of  wax  and  boiling  oil,  which  served  as  a  vehicle 
for  the  colouring  material,  was  laid  on  with  brushes.  The 
wax  was  then  sweated*  (to  use  the  only  word  which  conveys 
our  meaning)  by  bringing  a  chafing-dish  of  hot  coals  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  walls,  which  were  then  well  rubbed  with 
pieces  of  wax  taper,  and  finally  received  the  last  polish  from 
a  fine  linen  cloth. 

Besides  this  method,  the  ancients  painted  in  fresco,  as  is 
indisputably  proved  by  examination  of  the  paintings  found  at 
Pompeii,  Herculaneum,  and  the  thermae  at  Eome.  That  they 
did  so,  is  also  a  necessary  induction  from  a  passage  in  which 
Pliny  names  those  colours  which  were  unfit  to  be  applied 
upon  moist  plaster.  In  some  places  at  Pompeii,  where  de- 
tached figiu-cs  have  been  painted  upon  a  coloured  ground,  the 
partial  destruction  of  the  colours  has  exposed  to  view  the 
outline,  traced  upon  the  wall  apparently  while  wet,  by  means 
of  a  graver.  None  of  the  ancient  authors  have  given  reason 
to  suppose  that  lime-water  was  used  in  this  23rocess ;  it  is  pos- 
sible that  the  colours  were  embodied  in  a  thin  glue  or  gum. 
We  never  find  two  layers  of  paint  one  over  the  other,  except 
in  the  case  of  figures  or  ornaments  painted  on  a  coloured 
ground ;  and  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  designs  so  painted 
are  those  which  have  suffered  most  from  the  action  of  damp 
and  air. 

This  is  very  plainly  to  be  observed  in  a  painting  of  the 
Three  Graces,  in  a  private  house  in  the  Street  of  Abundance. 
The  entire  colour  laid  subsequently  upon  the  colom'ed  ground 


284 


POMPEII. 


has  peeled  off  in  consequence  of  damp  and  recent  exposure  to 
the  air,  while  the  outline  remains,  cut  deep  into  the  back- 
ground with  some  sharp  instrument.  The  vigour  of  the 
touches  by  which  some  of  these  figures  are  expressed  is 
really  astonishing.  The  ancients  appear  to  have  painted  the 
lighter  parts  with  great  body  of  colour,  and  rather  exagge- 
rated the  dark  touches  of  the  eyes  and  mouths  of  their  heads, 
which  gives  to  them  almost  a  speaking  expression.  Besides 
animal  glue,  the  ancients  made  use  of  several  sorts  of  gums 
for  painting ;  of  these  the  most  esteemed  was  called  sarcocoUa. 
They  also  employed  milk,  although  this  application  of  it  is 
regarded  as  of  modern  invention. 

The  historical  paintings  of  the  Eomans  were  chiefly  confined 
to  poetical  and  mythological  subjects,  the  only  ones  which 
seem  to  have  obtained  popularity  in  the  hands  of  either  poets 
or  painters.  We  give  a  few  observations  on  this  subject  from 
the  author  whom  we  have  above  quoted,  premising  that  the 
observations  which  he  thinks  it  necessary  to  make  on  the 
imperfection  of  his  beautiful  engravings  will  apply  with 
double  force  to  our  rough  outlines.  "  In  attempting  to  pre- 
serve a  memorial  and  record  of  these  paintings,  the  author 
does  not  imagine  that  anything  more  than  a  faint  idea  of 
them  can  be  furnished  to  the  reader.  An  artist  of  the  first 
skill  would  find  it  a  difficult  task  to  preserve  in  scanty  out- 
lines the  traces  of  the  force  or  expression  of  the  original, 
where  there  is  often  no  outline  at  all,  it  being  shaded  off  till 
the  forms  become  indistinct.  Indeed,  where  it  can  be  done, 
nothing  is  so  difficult  as  to  trace  an  outline  from  the  originals, 
even  upon  the  most  transparent  paper.  At  an  immense 
expense  only,  and  on  a  large  scale,  could  any  idea  be  fur- 
nished of  the  touch  and  style  of  the  painters  of  antiquity. 
Many  also  are  incorrect  as  to  drawing,  yet  the  additions  of 
shade  and  colour  diminish  the  defect,  which  in  outline 
becomes  glaring.  Those,  however,  who  wish  to  study  the 
grouping  and  composition  of  the  ancients,  will  here  find  great 
assistance,  and  history  and  poetry  may  be  illustrated  from 
authority,  instead  of  from  fancy.  There  is  no  doubt  a 
certain  degree  of  sameness  even  in  the  colom^ed  originals — a 
defect  which  must  be  more  visible  in  outline.  The  Eomans 
only  copied  themselves  and  the  Greeks,  therefore  they  had 
not  that  range  over  all  ages  and  all  situations  which  is  open 


POMPEIAN  ART. 


285 


to  modern  art.  The  Greeks,  who  only  depicted  themselves, 
and  an  occasional  Persian  or  Amazon,  were  still  more  con- 
fined as  to  models.  The  shading  of  a  modern  picture  is 
generally  artificially  contrived  by  a  light  let  in  by  a  small 
window,  or  even  a  small  hole  in  a  shutter,  purposely  closed, 
and  which  produces  an  effect  rarely  observed  in  nature.  The 
ancients,  on  the  contrary,  seem  to  have  preferred  the  light  of 
day  for  their  works,  and  one  curious  advantage  is  gained  by 
it.  The  pictures  of  the  ancients  produce  a  pleasing  effect 
when  only  surrounded  by  a  simple  line  of  red ;  while  the 
very  best  of  modern  paintings  is  very  much  indebted  to  the 
carver  and  gilder  for  its  gorgeous  and  burnished  frame, 
without  which  its  beauties  are  so  much  diminished,  that  it 
almost  ceases  to  be  a  decoration  to  an  apartment."* 

The  earlier  Grecian  masters  used  only  four  colours :  the 
earth  of  Melos  for  white ;  Attic  ochre  for  yellow  ;  sinopis, 
an  earth  from  Pontus,  for  red  ;  and  lamp-black  :  and  it  was 
with  these  simple  elements  that  Zeuxis,  Polygnotus,  and 
others  of  that  age,  executed  their  celebrated  works.  By 
degrees  new  colouring  substances  were  found,  so  that  at  a 
later  period,  when  Apelles  and  Protogenes  flourished,  "  the 
art  was  perfected,"  to  use  the  language  of  Cicero,  from  whom 
the  preceding  statement  is  also  derived.  So  great  indeed  is 
the  number  of  pigments  mentioned  by  ancient  authors,  and 
such  the  beauty  of  them,  that  it  is  very  doubtful,  whether 
with  all  the  help  of  modern  science,  modern  artists  possess 
any  advantage  in  this  respect  over  their  predecessors. 

The  Eomans  divided  colours  into  two  classes,  florid  and 
grave  (floridi  et  austeri).  The  former,  on  account  of  their 
high  price,  were  usually  provided  for  the  artist  by  his  em- 
ployer. These  were  again  divided  into  natural  and  artificial, 
or  factitious.  The  florid  colours  appear  to  have  been  six : 
minium,  red ;  chrysocolla,  green ;  armenium,  purpurissum, 
indicum,  ostrum,  various  shades  of  blue. 

Minium  was  that  colour  which  we  now  call  vermilion,  or 
cinnabar.  This  was  at  first  got  from  the  environs  of  Ephesus, 
afterwards  from  Spain,  where  there  was  a  mine  which  yielded 
a  large  revenue.  It  produced  yearly  about  ten  thousand 
pounds  weight  of  ore,  which  was  brought  crude  to  Eome 

*  Pompeiaaa,  second  series,  vol  i.  pp.  106—7 


286 


POMPEII. 


under  the  seal  of  tlie  sworn  superintendents  of  the  mine,  and 
prepared  there  for  use.  The  article  being  thus  monopolized, 
an  act  was  passed  that  the  price  should  not  exceed  seventy 
denarii,  about  £2  5s.  the  pound.  Minium,  besides  its  beauty, 
was  in  high  estimation  as  a  sacred  colour.  "  Yerrius  allegeth 
and  rehearseth  many  authors,  whose  credit  ought  not  to  be 
disproved,  who  affirm,  that  the  manner  was  in  times  past  to 
paint  the  very  face  of  Jupiter's  image,  upon  high  and  festival 
days,  with  vermilion  :  as  also  that  the  valiant  captaines  who 
rode  triumphant  into  Eome,  had  in  former  times  their  bodies 
coloured  all  over  therewith ;  after  which  manner  noble 
Camillus,  they  say,  entered  the  city  in  triumph.  And  even 
at  this  day,  according  to  that  ancient  and  religious  custom, 
ordinary  it  is  to  colour  all  the  unguents  that  are  used  at 
festival  suppers  at  a  high  and  solemn  triumph  with  vermilion. 
And  no  one  thing  do  the  censors  give  charge  and  order  to  be 
done  at  their  entrance  into  office  before  the  painting  of 
Ju23iter's  visage  with  minium.  The  cause  and  motive  that 
should  induce  our  ancestors  to  this  ceremony,  I  marvel  much 
at,  and  cannot  tell  what  it  should  be."* 

Chrysocolla  was  a  native  substance,  found  in  mines  of  gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  lead :  the  best  quality  was  found  in 
copper  mines,  the  second  in  silver  mines,  the  worst  in 
lead  mines.  An  artificial  sort  was  made  from  the  sediment 
of  water  left  standing  in  metallic  veins.  Pliny  says  that  it 
was  rendered  green  by  the  herb  lutum,  woad.  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  native  chrysocolla  was  carbonate 
of  copper  (malachite),  and  that  the  artificial  was  clay  impreg- 
nated with  sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol),  rendered  green 
by  a  yellov/  dje.'\  The  name  of  chrysocolla  (gold  glue)  was 
probably  derived  from  the  green  powder  used  by  goldsmiths 
as  solder,  into  which  copper  entered.  All  the  ancient  greens 
examined  by  Davy  proved  to  be  combinations  of  copper.  The 
best  quality  of  this  dye  cost  seven  denarii  the  pound  ;  the 
second,  five  ;  the  third,  three.  These  sums  will  be,  respec- 
tively, 4s.  6d.,  3s.  2d.,  Is.  lid. 

Armenium  took  its  name  from  the  country  whence  it 
came.    Like  the  two  already  described,  it  was  a  metallic 

*  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxiii.  7. 

t  Davy  on  tlie  colours  employed  by  the  ancients  in  painting. — Phil.  Trans. 
1815. 


POMPETAN  ART. 


287 


colour,  and  was  prepared  by  being  ground  to  an  impalpable ' 
powder.  It  was  of  a  light  blue  colour,  and  cost  thirty 
sesterces  a  pound,  about  4:S.  lOd.  A  sj)urious  sort,  nearly 
equal  to  it  in  quality,  was  made  of  a  particular  sand,  brought 
from  Spain,  and  dyed.  The  price  of  this  was  only  six  denarii, 
about  3s.  lOd. 

Purpurissum,  purple,  was  made  from  creta  argentaria,  a  fine 
chalk  or  clay  (for  the  ancients  seem  to  have  been  ignorant  of  the 
difference  between  calcareous  and  aluminous  earths),  steeped 
in  a  purple  dye.  In  colour  it  ranged  between  minium  and 
blue,  and  included  every  degree  in  the  scale  of  purple  shades. 
The  best  sort  came  from  Pozzuoli.  It  varied  in  price  from 
one  to  thirty  denarii,  from  7 Jri.  to  near  a  poimd  sterling. 
Purpurissum  Indicum  was  brought  from  India.  It  was  of  a 
deep  blue,  and  probably  was  the  same  as  indigo.  It  sold  for 
twenty  denarii  the  pound,  about  12s.  Several  lumps  of  a 
deep  blue  substance,  found  in  the  baths  of  Titus,  were 
analyzed  by  Davy,  and  found  to  consist  of  a  frit  made  by 
means  of  soda,  coloured  with  oxide  of  copper.  Powdered 
and  mixed  with  chalk,  they  produced  tints  exactly  corre- 
sponding with  the  blues  still  preserved  on  the  wall  of  the 
same  baths.* 

Ostrum  was  a  liquid  colour,  to  which  the  proper  consistence 
was  given  by  adding  honey.  It  was  produced  by  the  juice 
of  a  fish  called  murex,  and  differed  in  tint  according  to  the 
country  from  which  it  came  ;  being  deeper  and  more  violet 
when  brought  from  the  northern,  redder  when  from  the 
southern  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.!  A  pot,  ccmtaining  a 
rose-coloured  substance,  also  found  in  the  baths  of  Titus,  was 
submitted  to  Davy.  The  outside  had  turned  to  a  pale  cream 
colour,  the  interior  had  a  lusti'c  approaching  to  that  of  car- 
mine. He  made  many  experiments  without  being  able  to 
determine  whether  the  colouring  substance  were  animal  or 
vegetable  ;  but  the  impression  made  on  his  mind  seems  to 
have  been  that  this  was  a  specimen  of  the  best  Tyrian  purple. 

The  austere  colours  were  more  numerous.  Parsetonium, 
or  Ammonia,  was  brought  from  a  place  of  the  same  name  in 
Egypt,  on  the  Mediterranean  shore.  It  was  a  very  thick 
white  colour,  and  was  also  used  to  make  those  stuccos  which 


*  Phil.  Trans.  1815. 


t  Vitruv.  vii.  13. 


288 


POMPEII. 


required  an  exceeding  hardness.  Six  pounds  were  sold  for 
one  denarius.  Among  the  colours  analyzed  by  Davy  was  a 
fine  white  aluminous  clay,  which  may  be  the  same.  Another 
sort  of  white,  used  especially  for  the  carnations  of  female 
figures,  was  called  annulare.  It  was  made  of  chalk  and  that 
kind  of  glass  of  which  rings  (annuli)  were  made  for  the 
common  people  of  Eome.  Cerussa,  or  white  lead,  was  also 
used,  especially  in  the  article  of  ladies'  complexions. 

Of  reds,  the  ancients  had  red  lead  (cerussa  usta),  which  is 
said  to  have  been  discovered  in  consequence  of  a  fire  in  the 
Piraeus,  which  caught  some  of  the  toilet  furniture  of  the 
Athenian  ladies.  The  best  sort  was  of  a  purplish  hue,  came 
from  Asia  Minor,  and  cost  sixteen  denarii,  about  10s.  4cZ. 
Of  this  colour  much  use  was  made  in  shades.*  The  reader 
must  not  confuse  this  colour,  which  we  call  minium,  with  the 
ancient  minium  or  cinnabar,  the  sulp buret  of  mercury.  A 
spurious  sort  of  burnt  cerussa  was  made  at  Kome  by  calcining 
a  stony  sort  of  ochre,  sil  marmorosum,  and  then  quenching  it 
in  vinegar.  Sinopis  was  an  earth  of  a  beautiful  red,  brought 
from  the  city  of  Sinope  in  Pontus ;  with  it  are  made  most  of 
those  beautiful  red  grounds  so  much  admired  at  Pompeii 
and  elsewhere.  It  was  of  three  shades,  the  red,  the  middle, 
and  the  less  red.  The  best  quality  came  from  Lemnos, 
stamped,  to  show  that  it  was  genuine  (thence  called  terra 
Lemnica,  terra  sigillata),  from  the  Balearic  Islands,  and  from 
Cappadocia.  It  was  also  furnished  from  Egypt.  The  best 
quality  cost  three  denarii,  near  2s.  a  pound.  An  inferior 
sort  from  Africa  was  called  cicerculum,  and  cost  only  eight 
asses,  about  6d.  There  was  also  a  colour,  called  cinnabar 
by  the  Indians,  said  to  be  produced  by  the  mixed  blood  shed 
by  the  elephant  and  dragon  in  their  deadly  fights,  which  of 
all  colours  most  aptly  represented  blood.  This  is  conjectured 
by  Mazois  to  be  cochineal.  It  is  more  likely  to  be  the  sub- 
stance still  called  dragon's  blood,  and  much  used  in  the  arts, 
which  is  of  a  deep  red  colour  ;  nor  do  we  believe  that 
cochineal  was  known  before  the  discovery  of  America. "j* 

Sandaracha  was  a  colour  found  in  gold  and  silver  mines, 

*  Sine  usta  non  fiunt  umbrae. — Plin.  xxxv.  6. 

t  During  the  residence  of  a  friend  of  the  author  near  Pompeii,  a  pot  of  red 
colour  (crimson)  was  found,  and  used  with  great  success  as  a  body  colour,  by 
a  trench  artist,  who  bought  it  of  the  workmen. 


POMPEIAN  ART. 


289 


varying  in  shade  between  red  and  yellow.  The  redder  Avas 
the  most  esteemed.  Eoasted  with  an  equal  proportion  of 
red  lead,  it  made  the  colour  called  sandyx,  of  a  dull  hue, 
which,  when  mixed  with  sinopis,  was  called  syricum.  This 
was  chiefly  used  as  a  ground  colour.  Whcxi  finished  with  a 
coat  of  purpurissum,  laid  on  with  white  of  egg,  it  counter- 
feited minium,  or  cinnabar ;  when  ostrum  w^as  laid  on  with 
it,  it  made  a  purj)le.* 

For  yellows  there  were  used  a  paler  sort  of  sandaracha, 
which  is  used  by  Naevius  to  describe  the  colour  of  a  blackbird's 
beak ;  orpiment,  or  sulphuret  of  arsenic  (auri  pigmentum)  ; 
and  several  sorts  of  ochre,  of  which  the  Attic  was  most  highly 
esteemed.  This  cost  two  denarii,  or  Is.  Shd,  The  ochre  of 
Achaia  was  used  in  shades,  and  cost  about  4:d.  The  Gallic, 
or  shining  ochre,  was  used  for  lights,  and  was  still  cheaper. 

Atramentum,  or  black,  was  of  two  sorts,  natural  or  artificial. 
The  natural  was  made  from  a  black  earth,  or  from  the  blood 
of  the  cuttle-fish,  sepia.  The  artificial  w^as  made  of  the  dregs 
of  wine  carbonized,  calcined  ivory,  or  lamp-black.  The 
Indian  atramentum  was  esteemed  the  best :  its  composition 
was  unknown,  but  it  was  best  imitated  with  the  dregs  of 
wine.  Kalcanthon,  or  vitriolic  black,  was  only  used  for 
staining  wood.  The  black  powder,  in  whatever  way  pre- 
pared, was  used  for  writing-ink  when  mixed  with  gum  :  when 
used  for  painting  walls  it  was  mixed  with  glue. 

Caeruleum,  or  azure,  was  a  sand  brought  from  Egypt, 
Scythia,  and  Cyprus.  It  was  afterwards  manufactured  in 
Spain  and  at  Pozzuoli.  This  imitation  was  called  caelon. 
The  price  of  the  caaruleum  was  eight  denarii.  This  colour 
was  dyed  with  the  juice  of  herbs,  like  the  chrysocolla.  From 
the  caeruleum,  washed  and  pounded,  was  made  a  paler  blue, 
called  lomentmn.  This  cost  ten  denarii.  Caeruleum  was 
forged  with  the  white  earth  of  Eretria,  coloured  with  dried 
violets  macerated  in  water. 

The  green  called  appianum  was  a  very  ordinary  colour, 
used  to  imitate  the  chrysocolla  lutca.  It  was  a  chalk,  or 
clay,  and  sold  for  one  sesterce  the  pound. 

Of  these  colours,  purpurissum,  purpurissum  indicum  caeru- 
leum, melinum,  auri  pigmentum,  appianum,  and  cerussa, 

*  See  Histoire  de  la  Feiuture  Ancienne. 

U 


290 


POMPEIL 


could  not  be  used  in  painting  on  a  wet  surface ;  consequently 
not  for  frescoes.  They  were  mixed  with  wax,  and  employed 
in  encaustic  painting. 

The  following  table  presents  a  general  view  of  all  the 
colours  of  which  we  have  spoken  : — 


Florid 


Red 


,  Austere 


Yellow  Austere 


Blue  , 


Green 
White 
Black 


'  Austere 

Florid  . 
Austere 


Austere 


Austere 


Minium,  or  cinnabar. 
Cerussa  usta,  or  red  lead. 
Sinopis,  of  three  shades. 
Cicerculum. 

Indian  cinnabar,  or  dragon's  blood. 

Sandaracha. 

Sandix. 

Syricura. 

Sandaracha. 

Orpiment. 

Ochre,  of  several  shades. 

Arraenium. 

Purpurissum. 

Purpurissum  indicum,  or  indigo. 
Ostrum,  or  Tyrian  purple. 
Cseruleum. 

Cfelon,  or  vestorianum. 

Lomentum. 

Chrysocolla,  native. 

 ,  artificial. 

Viride  appianum. 
J  Parastonium. 

CerussiA,  or  white  lead. 

Annulare. 
I  A  tram  en  turn. 

  Indicum. 

'  Kalcanthon, 


We  will  quote,  in  conclusion,  a  few  general  observations 
of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  upon  this  subject.  "  It  appears  from 
the  facts  which  have  been  stated,  and  the  authorities  quoted, 
that  the  Greek  and  Roman  2)ainters  had  almost  all  the  same 
colours  as  those  employed  by  the  great  Italian  masters  at 
the  period  of  the  revival  of  the  arts  in  Italy.  They  had 
indeed  the  advantage  over  them  in  two  colours,  the  Vestorian 
or  Egyptian  azure,  and  the  Tyrian  or  marine  purple. 

"  The  azure,  of  which  the  excellence  is  proved  by  its 
duration  for  1700  years,  may  be  easily  and  cheaply  made.  I 
find  that  fifteen  parts  by  weight  of  carbonate  of  soda,  twenty 
parts  of  powdered  opaque  flints  and  three  parts  of  copper 


POMPEIAN  ART. 


291 


filings,  strongly  heated  together  for  two  hours,  gave  a  sub- 
stance of  exactly  the  same  tint  and  nearly  the  same  degree 
of  fusibility,  and  which,  when  powdered,  produced  a  fine  deep 
blue. 

"  The  azure,  the  red  and  yellow  ochres,  and  the  blacks, 
are  the  colours  which  seem  not  to  have  changed  at  all  in  the 
ancient  fresco  paintings.  The  vermilion  is  darker  than 
recently-made  Dutch  cinnabar,  and  the  red  lead  is  inferior 
in  tint  to  that  sold  in  the  shops.  The  greens  in  general  are 
dull. 

"  Massicot  and  orpiment  were  probably  among  the  least 
durable  of  the  ancient  colours. 

"  If  red  and  yellow  ochres,  blacks  and  w^hites,  were  the 
colours  most  employed  by  Protogenes  and  Apelles,  so  are 
they  likewise  the  colours  most  employed  by  Eaphael  and 
Titian  in  their  best  style.  The  St.  John  and  Venus,  in  the 
tribune  of  the  gallery  at  Florence,  ofier  striking  examples  of 
pictures,  in  which  all  the  deeper  tints  are  evidently  pro- 
duced by  red  and  yellow  ochres  and  carbonaceous  sub- 
stances."* 

The  annexed  picture  appears  to  represent  either  the 
marriage  of  Masinissa  and  Sophonisba,  or  the  death  of 
Sophonisba,  but  it  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  containing  a 
portrait  of  Scipio.  What  business  the  Eoman  general  had 
to  be  i)resent  on  either  of  those  occasions,  it  is  hard  to  say. 
The  picture  is  much  mutilated,  and  the  back  part  of  Scipio's 
head  and  most  of  his  figure  are  destroyed  ;  but  the  face 
remains  perfect,  and  is  recognized  by  Visconti  as  coinciding 
with  the  most  authentic  busts,  and  especially  with  a  fine 
bronze  head  in  the  Museum  at  Naples.  This  we  believe  is 
the  only  known  portrait  w^liich  has  been  found.  It  shows 
that  artists  did  introduce  the  likenesses  of  great  men  into 
their  historical  compositions,  and  gives  some  slight  groimd 
to  hope  that  other  likenesses  may  hereafter  be  discovered 
and  identified.  The  figures  are  placed  imder  a  portico, 
projecting  upon  a  garden.  A  green  curtain  is  stretched 
from  column  to  column,  so  as  to  form  a  back- ground  to  the 
principal  figures.  The  couch  on  which  the  two  principal 
figures  recline  is  also  green,  but  it  is  covered  in  part  with  a 

*  Davy  on  the  colours  used  in  painting  by  the  ancients. — Phil.  Trans.  1815. 


292 


POMPEII. 


large  violet-coloured  cloth,  which  passes  over  the  shoulders 
of  Masinissa,  and  down  to  the  feet  of  Sophonisba.  Both 


have  their  heads  encircled  with  a  regal  diadem.  The  flesh 
of  Masinissa  is  painted  of  a  clear  olive-brown.  Sophonisba 
is  dressed  in  a  yellow  pallium  and  green  tunic.  Scipio 


POMPEIAN  ART. 


293 


wears  his  warrior's  dress,  with  a  red  mantle.  The  can- 
delabrum behind  Masinissa  seems  meant  to  represent  ivory. 

We  cannot  close  this  account  better  than  with  two  pictures 
of  rather  different  character,  both  representing  artists  at 
work.  The  first  is  a  female  employed  in  painting  a  picture 
of  the  bearded  Bacchus.  She  is  dressed  in  a  light-green 
tunic,  without  sleeves,  over  which  she  wears  a  dark-red 
mantle.  Beside  her  is  a  small  box,  such  as,  we  are  told  by 
Varro,  painters  used,  divided  into  compartments,  into  which 
she  dips  her  brush.  She  mixes  her  tints  on  the  palette, 
which  she  holds  in  her  left  hand. 

The  other  exhibits  a  gentleman  painter  of  antiquity  in 
his  studio,  pencil  in  hand,  with  a  sitter  before  him,  and 
surrounded  by  the  apparatus  of  his  art.  This  subject  is 
represented  in  the  engraving  on  page  295,  copied  by  Mazois 
from  a  painting  found  in  the  Casa  Carolina,  which  fell  in 
pieces  upon  the  first  rain.  It  is  of  grotesque  character,  like 
one  or  two  which  we  have  already  given  copies  of,  represent- 
ing deformed  pigmies  ;  but  these  grotesque  paintings  are  for 
the  most  part  worthy  of  our  attention,  for  they  generally 
represent  domestic  scenes,  and  consequently  furnish  us  with 
many  hints  relative  to  domestic  life  and  every-day  business. 
The  picture  of  which  we  now  speak  is  one  instance  of  this. 
It  represents  a  pigmy  painter,  whose  only  covering  is  a 
tunic,  very  remarkably  scant  in  longitude  behind.  He  is  at 
work  upon  the  portrait  of  another  pigmy,  clothed  in  a  manner 
to  indicate  a  person  of  distinction  :  the  sinus,  or  gathering 
of  the  bosom  of  the  toga,  is  very  observable.  The  artist  is 
seated  opposite  to  his  sitter,  at  an  awful  distance  from  the 
picture',  in  an  attitude  which  makes  no  common  share  of 
steadiness  of  hand  requisite  to  apply  the  pencil  with  any 
pretence  to  accuracy.  The  picture,  already  pretty  far 
advanced,  is  placed  upon  an  easel,  similar  in  construction 
to  om's.  By  the  side  of  the  artist  stands  his  palette,  which 
is  a  little  table  with  four  feet,  and  by  it  is  a  pot  to  wash  his 
pencils  in.  He  therefore  was  working  with  gum,  or  some 
sort  of  water-colours.  But  he  did  not  confine  himself  to  this 
branch  of  the  art,  for  to  the  right  we  see  his  colour-grinder, 
who  prepares,  in  a  vessel  placed  on  some  hot  coals,  colours 
mixed  with  punic  wax  and  oil.  Two  amateurs,  or  parasites 
perhaps  of  the  person  who  is  sitting,  enter  the  studio,  and 


294 


POMPEII. 


A  female  painting  a  picture  of  the  bearded  Bacchus. 


P03IPEIAN  ART. 


295 


296 


POMPEII. 


appear  to  be  conversing  with  respect  to  the  picture.  On  the 
noise  occasioned  by  their  entrance,  a  scholar  seated  in  the 
distance  turns  round  to  look  at  them.  The  bird  is  suj^posed 
by  Mazois  to  typify  some  singer,  or  musician,  such  as  it 
might  be  customary  to  introduce  to  amuse  the  guests  :  we 
have  no  more  plausible  conjecture  to  offer.  The  picture  is 
not  complete  :  a  second  bird,  and  on  the  opposite  side  a  child 
playing  with  a  dog,  had  perished  before  Mazois  copied  it. 

But  though  the  paintings  and  mosaics  are  the  most  cha- 
racteristic remains  of  ancient  art  discovered  in  Pompeii,  yet 
the  sculptures  found  there,  and  especially  the  bronzes,  though 


The  Dancing  Faun. 


in  general  not  equal  to  those  from  Herculaneum,  deserve  a 
passing  word  of  notice.  Some  of  the  smaller  bronzes  from 
Pompeii  especially  are  unsurpassed  for  character  and  vigour 
of  execution.  Such,  particularly,  is  the  statuette  of  the 
Dancing  Faun,  found  in  the  house  to  which  it  gave  name. 
Nothing  can  exceed  the  vigour  and  animation  with  which  the 


POMPEIAN  ART. 


297 


figure  is  executed,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  annexed  engraving. 
It  is  bearded,  and  lias  the  horns  and  tail  of  a  goat.  An 
oaken  garland  with  acorns,  some  of  which  seem  to  have 
fallen  from  their  shells,  encircles  his  head,  and  proclaims  his 
sylvan  character.  His  attitudes  display  all  the  animated 
gestures  of  a  drunken  dance.  His  wide-spread  arms  seem  to 
accompany  the  movements  of  his  feet,  and  he  snaps  his  fingers 
for  joy. 


\ 

Siknus. 


Another  little  bronze  statuette  about  the  same  size,  repre- 
senting Silenus  bearing  a  sort  of  tray,  on  which  stood  a  vase, 
discovered  in  1864  in  a  house  of  no  importance,  is  not  inferior 
to  the  preceding  one  in  character,  though  the  nature  of  the 
subject  does  not  admit  the  same  spirited  execution.  Silenus 
seems  to  stagger  under  the  weight  wliicli  he  is  supporting. 


298 


POMPEII. 


The  left  arm  and  shoulder  are  elevated  to  bear  the  tray,  his 
head  sinks  upon  his  chest,  his  right  arm  and  right  leg  are 
extended,  to  enable  him  to  keep  his  balance.  His  bald  head 
is  crowned  with  a  garland  of  leaves  and  berries,  his  loins 
are  encircled  with  a  cloth,  and  on  his  feet  he  wears  sandals. 
A  snake  that  begins  to  coil  round  his  arm  helps  to  support 
the  tray.  The  whole  figure  has  so  much  nature  and  character 
that  we  have  transferred  it  to  our  pages. 


Narcissus. 


Other  small  and  graceful  statues  in  the  same  material  are 
the  Narcissus,  the  Hermaphrodite  Apollo,  Fortune  on  a 
globe,  the  group  of  Bacchus  and  Ampelus,  &c.  The  attitude 
of  Narcissus,  and  the  earnest  expression  of  his  face,  as  he 
listens  for  the  voice  of  Echo,  are  admirably  rendered.  It  is 
considered  one  of  the  finest  works  yet  discovered  at  Pompeii. 
The  annexed  plate  will  convey  an  idea  of  it. 


POMPEIAN  ART. 


299 


Pompeii  has  yielded  but  few  marble  statues  of  any  note ; 
but  some  of  those  discovered  confirm  the  opinion  that  the 
ancients  sometimes  coloured  their  statues.  Thus  a  statue  of 
Venus  leaving  the  bath,  naked  from  the  waist  upwards,  and 
wringing  her  dishevelled  locks,  discovered  February  16th, 
1765,  has  the  hair  painted  yellow,  round  her  neck  is  a  gilt 
necklace,  the  breasts  and  upper  part  of  the  stomach  are  also 
gilt,  whilst  the  drapery  which  covers  the  lower  members  is 
painted  blue.*  On  the  same  day  was  discovered  close  to 
this  statue  the  bronze  head  of  an  old  man  on  a  marble 
hermes,  the  eyes  of  which  were  formed  of  some  white  sub- 
stance, while  the  pupil  was  of  black  glass  or  some  transparent 
stone. f  A  small  marble  statue  of  Bacchus,  found  behind,  the 
cell  of  the  temple  of  Isis,  February  8th,  1766,  had  the  hair, 
eyebrows,  and  eyes  partly  painted,  partly  gilt;  the  grapes 
which  formed  a  garland  round  his  head  were  also  coloured. 
On  his  neck  was  a  gilt  necklace,  round  his  arms  and  wrists 
gilt  bracelets.  The  goat-skin  which  hung  from  his  shoulders 
was  covered  with  gilt  spots  ;  his  buskins  were  j)artly  coloured, 
partly  gilt ;  the  tree  against  which  he  leant,  and  the  tiger 
which  stood  near  him,  were  also  tinted. J  Another  larger 
marble  statue  of  a  woman,  also  found  in  the  Temple  of  Isis, 
had  the  flowers  on  her  head,  her  bracelets,  and.  the  upper 
part  of  her  vest,  gilt ;  whilst  her  girdle  and  the  lower  part  of 
her  dress  were  painted  red,  with  gold  ornaments.§  A 
colossal  statue  of  an  emperor,  in  Greek  marble,  discovered 
June  22nd,  1853,  had  the  hair  painted  red,  the  mantle  purple, 
and  the  buskins  black. ||  There  were  also  traces  of  colour  on 
the  statue  of  Holconius  found  on  the  pedestal  at  the  bottom 
of  the  street  which  bears  his  name,  and  on  that  of  Eumachia 
discovered  in  the  Chalcidicum. 

It  may  be  inferred  from  the  parts  of  another  marble 
statue,  nearly  the  size  of  life,  also  discovered  in  the  Temple 
of  Isis,  March  4th,  1766,  that  the  ancients  used  sometimes 
to  dress  their  statues.  The  parts  found  were  the  head, 
having  earrings  in  the  ears,  the  left  hand,  the  right  arm  and 
hand,  holding  a  bronze  sistrum,  and  the  fore  parts  of  the 
feet.    From  the  appearance  and  position  of  these  fragments, 

*  Fiorelli.  Pomp,  Antiq,  Hist.,  t.  i.  p.  165.  Cf.  Quart.  Eev.  No.  230, 
p.  .319. 

t  Hist,  ^'c,  ib.       X  lb.  p.  184.       §  lb.  p.  185.       |1  lb.  t.  ii.  p.  563. 


300 


POMPEII. 


it  was  evident  that  they  had  never  formed  integral  parts  of  a 
marble  statue,  and  as  no  remains  of  the  body  were  found,  it 
is  conjectured  that  it  must  have  been  of  wood.*  In  this  case 
the  statue  must  have  been  so  draped  as  to  conceal  all  but  the 
marble  portions  of  it. 

*  -Hist  ^c,  t.  i.  p.  186. 


Curule  Chair ;  from  a  picture  in  Pompeii. 


301 


Bee-hives  made  of  Bronze. 


CHAPTEE  III. 

PRIVATE  HOUSE  S. 

To  notice  all  the  houses  excavated  at  Pompeii,  even  if  there 
were  materials  for  it,  would  be  wearisome  in  the  extreme.  We 
intend  therefore  merely  to  select  some  of  the  most  important, 
to  be  described  at  length,  the  arrangement  of  which  may 
serve,  with  variations  according  to  place  and  circumstances, 
as  a  type  of  the  whole.  Some,  which  offer  no  particularity 
in  their  construction,  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their 
paintings  or  other  decorations ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  from  the 
paintings  on  the  walls  that  many  of  the  houses  have  derived 
their  names.  Some  again  are  designated  from  mosaics  or 
inscriptions  on  the  threshold,  from  the  trade  or  profession 
evidently  exercised  by  the  proprietors,  or  from  some  accident, 
as  the  presence  of  distinguished  persons  at  their  excavation — • 
as,  for  instance,  those  called  the  House  of  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II.,  del  Gran  Duca,  dcgli  Scienziati,  &g.  As  it  is 
the  object  of  this  work  to  convey  a  general  notion  of  the 
remains  of  Pompeii,  and  to  exhibit,  as  far  as  our  materials 


302 


POMPEII. 


will  permit,  the  private  life  of  the  first  century  in  all  its 
degrees,  we  shall  begin  with  one  or  two  of  the  shojis.  These 
present  great  similarity  in  theii-  arrangements,  and  indicate 
that  the  tribe  of  shopkeepers  was  very  inferior  in  wealth  and 
comfort  to  that  of  our  own  time  and  country.  They  are  for 
the  most  part  very  small,  and  sometimes  without  any  interior 
apartment  on  the  ground  floor.  The  upper  floor  must  have 
comprised  one  or  two  sleeping-rooms  :  but  there  is,  as  we 
believe,  only  one  house  in  which  the  upper  floor  is  in 
existence. 

It  is  rare  at  Pompeii  to  see  a  whole  house  set  apai't  for 
purposes  of  trade,  a  part  being  occupied  by  the  shop  itself, 
the  rest  furnishing  a  comfortable  dwelling  for  the  owner. 
The  houses  of  the  richer  classes,  instead  of  presenting  a 
handsome  elevation  to  the  street,  were  usually  surrounded 
with  shops,  let  out  to  hire,  of  that  mean,  or  at  least  uncom- 
fortable sort,  which  we  have  ali'eady  described.  They  fur- 
nished a  very  considerable  soui'ce  of  revenue.  Cicero,  in  a 
letter  to  Atticus,  speaks  of  the  ruinous  state  into  which  some 
of  his  shops  had  fallen,  '*  insomuch  that  not  only  the  men, 
but  the  mice  had  quitted  them,''  and  hints  at  the  gain  which 
he  hoped  to  derive  from  this  seemingly  imtoward  circum- 
stance.* One  Julia  Felix  possessed  nine  hundred  shops,  as 
we  learn  from  an  inscription  in  Pompeii,  to  which  we  have 
already  adverted.  We  give  here  the  ground-plan  of  a  shop, 
together  with  a  view  of  the  interior,  as  it  has  been  restored, 
somewhat  fancifully,  or  at  least  without  very  sure  data,  by 
Mazois.  1.  Curb-stone,  which  is  pierced  with  several  holes, 
perhaps  to  attach  beasts  of  bui'den.j*  2.  The  footpath. 
3.  The  shop.  The  whole  front  was  entirely  open,  excepting 
in  so  far  as  it  is  occupied  by  a  broad  counter  of  masom-y, 
into  which  are  built  four  large  jars  of  baked  earth,  their 
tops  being  even  vdih  the  surface  of  the  counter.  Behind  ai'e 
two  small  rooms  (5j  5).  containing  nothing  of  imj^ortance. 
The  traces  of  a  staircase  (4)  indicate  that  there  was  an  upper 
floor.  At  night  the  whole  front  was  closed  with  shutters, 
sliding  in  gi-ooves  cut  in  the  lintel  and  basement  wall  before 
the  counter,  and  by  the  door,  which  in  the  restored  view 
annexed  is  thi-own  far  back,  so  as  to  be  hardly  visible. 

*  Lib.  xiv.  9. 

t  More  probably  to  fasten  an  awning  projecting  over  the  pavement. 


PRIVATE  HOUSES. 


303 


There  is  an  oven  at  the  end  of  the  counter  furthest  from  the 
street,  and  three  steps  on  the  left  side,  which  in  the  view  have 
been  presumed  to  support  different  sorts  of  vessels  or  measures 
for  liquids.  From  these  indications  it  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  cook's  shop  ;  for  the  sale,  perhaps,  both  of  undressed 
and  dressed  provisions,  as  is  indicated  in  the  view.  The 
oven  probably  served  to  prepare,  and  keep  constantly  hot, 
some  popular  dishes  for  the  service  of  any  chance  customer  : 


Ground -plan  of  a  Shop. 

the  jars  might  hold  oil,  olives,  or  the  fish-pickle  called  gariim, 
an  article  of  the  highest  importance  in  a  Eoman  kitchen,  for 
the  manufacture  of  which  Pompeii  was  celebrated.*  Fixed 
vessels  appear  inconvenient  for  such  uses  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  cleaning  them  out ;  but  the  practice,  it  is  said, 
continues  to  this  day  at  Eome,  where  the  small  shopkeepers 

*  It  was  made  of  the  entrails  of  fish  macerated  in  brine.  That  made  from 
the  fish  called  scomber  was  the  best.  This  word  is  sometimes  translated  a 
herring,  but  the  best  authorities  render  it  a  mackerel.  It  was  caught,  ac- 
cording to  Pliny,  in  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  entering  from  the  ocean,  and  was 
used  for  no  purpose  but  to  make  garum.  The  best  was  called  garum  sociorum, 
a  term  of  which  we  have  seen  no  satisfactory  explanation,  and  sold  for  1000 
sesterces  for  two  congii,  about  £4  a  gallon.  An  inferior  kind,  made  from  the 
anchovy  (aphya),  was  called  alec,  a  name  also  given  to  the  dregs  of  garum. 
"No  liquid,  except  unguents,"  Pliny  says,  "fetched  a  higher  price." — Hist. 
Nat.  xxxi.  43. 


304 


POMPEII. 


keep  their  oil  in  similar  jars,  fixed  in  a  counter  of  masonry* 
All  the  ornaments  in  the  view  are  copied  from  Pompeii.  In 
front  of  the  shop,  which  stands  opposite  the  passage  leading 
behind  the  small  theatre  to  the  Soldiers'  Quarters,  are  three 
stepping-stones,  to  enable  persons  to  cross  the  road  without 
weV}ing  their  feet  in  bad  weather. 

In  conjunction  with  a  street  view,  we  give  the  view  of 
another  shop,  which  has  also  a  counter  containing  jars  for 


View  of  a  Cook's  Shop  restored. 


the  reception  of  some  liquid  commodity.  By  some  it  is 
called  a  Thermopolium,  or  shop  for  the  sale  of  hot  drinks, 
while  others  call  it  an  oil-shop.  In  front  is  a  fountain.  ^  It 
is  situated  at  the  angle  of  the  street  immediately  adjoining 
the  House  of  Pansa,  and,  as  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  the 
map,  appears  to  be  of  greater  extent,  and  to  contain  more 
conveniences  than  is  usual  in  establishments  of  this  sort. 
The  left-hand  street  leads  to  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum  ;  the 
right,  skirting  Pansa's  house,  is  terminated  by  the  city  walls. 
Tracks  of  wheels  are  very  visible  on  the  pavement.  The 


*  Mazois,  p.  44. 


PEIYATE  HOUSES. 


305 


interior  was  gaily  painted  in  blue  panels  and  red  borders,  as 
v.e  learn  from  the  coloui'ed  view  in  3Ir.  Donaldson's  Pompeii, 
li'um  which  this  is  taken.    The  counter  is  faced  and  covered 


306 


POMPEII. 


with  marble.  Numerous  thermopolia  have  been  discovered 
in  Pompeii,  many  of  them  identified,  or  supposed  to  be 
identified,  by  the  stains  left  upon  the  counters  by  wet  glasses. 

The  following  engraving  is  the  ground-plan  of  another 
shop,  affording  much  more  accommodation,  and,  therefore, 
probably  occupied  by  a  more  wealthy  tradesman.  1.  Entrance. 
2.  Shop.  3.  Covered  court,  which,  in  a  house  of  more  pre- 
tension, would  be  called  an  atrium.    It  is  pseudotetrastyle. 


Ground-plan  of  a  Shop. 


the  roof  being  supported  by  four  pillars,  two  of  which  are 
engaged  in  the  wall.  4.  Impluvium.  5.  This  room  probably 
was  the  owner's  bedchamber.  6.  Staircase  leading  to  one 
small  room  over  the  kitchen,  7.   Part  of  the  wall  of  the  small 


PRIVATE  HOUSES. 


307 


upper  cliamber  still  remains.  The  columns  are  perfect,  and 
are  painted  red  for  the  lower  third  of  their  height  :  the  rest 
is  white.  It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  examples,  but  those 
already  given  are  enough  to  convey  a  general  notion  of  this 
class  of  houses,  and  there  is  little  or  nothing  interesting  in 
their  details. 

We  regret  very  much  that  the  nature  of  the  remains 
furnishes  so  little  information  with  respect  to  the  coui'se  of 
trade.  Two  remarkable  buildings  have  been  found,  which 
will  be  described  by  themselves,  and  at  length  :  one  a  bake- 
house ;  the  other  an  establishment  for  fulling  and  dying  cloth, 
of  which  we  may  conjecture  that  a  considerable  manufacture 
was  here  carried  on,  from  the  ample  accommodation  provided 
for  the  dealers  in  that  article  in  the  building  called  the 
Chalcidicum  of  Eumachia.  With  these  exceptions,  and  with 
one  or  two  brief  notices  of  articles  found  in  dilferent  quarters, 
we  can  give  no  further  information  connected  with  the  trade 
of  the  place. 

Oui^  next  plan  is  that  of  a  small  house,  yet  one  superior 
to  the  last,  both  in  accommodation  and  in  the  rank  of  its  pos- 
sessor. It  was  not  inhabited  by  a  shoj^keeper,  for  there  is 
no  shop  ;  but  its  limited  extent  shows  that  the  occupier  was  a 
person  of  narrow  income,  probably  either  exercising  some  pro- 
fession, or  living  on  a  small  independent  property.  Small  as 
it  is,  it  approaches  more  nearly  in  character  to  the  superior 
class  of  houses  than  any  yet  described.  1.  Entrance. 
2.  Passage.  3.  Staircase  leading  to  a  small  room,  probably 
the  master's  bedchamber,  and  to  a  terrace  extending  over  the 
length  of  the  passage.  4,  Small  room  for  a  servant.  5.  Large 
room,  perhaps  serving  at  once  for  a  kitchen  and  winter  eating- 
room.  Or  the  kitchen  may  be  su2)posed  to  have  been  placed 
in  the  space  10,  since  the  humble  suppers  of  persons  in  this 
rank  of  life  required  no  extensive  preparation.  6.  Court,  or 
garden,  half  covered  with  a  trellis,  as  is  evident  from  the 
holes  which  received  the  ends  of  the  beams.  It  was  meant 
to  shade  a  stone  triclinium,  9  (for  the  couches  themselves,  as 
well  as  the  room  which  contained  them  were  so  named),  which 
still  exists.  7.  Canal  to  receive  the  rain  water,  and  conduct 
it  into  a  cistern,  from  which  it  was  drawn  for  household  uses 
through  a  well- hole,  8.  Cisterns  of  this  sort  were  very  care- 
fully made.    The  walls  ^vere  lined  with  a  strong  cement, 


308 


POMPEII. 


made  of  five  parts  of  sharp  sand  and  two  of  quick-lime,  mixed 
with  flints,  the  bottom  being  paved  with  the  same,  and  the 
whole  well  beaten  with  an  iron  rammer.    If  it  was  wished 


Ground-plan  of  a  small  House. 

to  have  the  water  perfectly  pure  they  did  not  content  them- 
selves with  a  single  cistern,  but  made  two  or  three  at  different 
levels,  so  that  the  water  successively  deposited  the  grosser 
and  the  lighter  impurities  with  which  it  might  be  charged. 
Cistern  water,  when  drunk,  was  usually  boiled,  to  free  it  from 
any  impure  matters  or  smell  which  it  might  have  contracted 
in  the  reservoir.    It  was  not  in  high  esteem,  and  was  con- 


PRIVATE  HOUSES. 


309 


sidered  to  make  tlie  voice  of  those  who  drank  it  hoarse  and 
disagreeable.  Such  is  the  abundance  of  fountains  in  Pompeii, 
that  it  probably  was  little  used  except  for  household  pur- 
poses. 11  is  a  lararium,  or  domestic  chapel,  of  very  small 
dimensions,  with  a  bench  running  round  two  sides  of  it.  In 
the  centre  is  a  small  altar,  placed  before  a  niche,  ornamented 
with  the  painting  of  some  goddess  holding  a  cornucopia.  She 
is  reposing  on  a  couch,  closely  resembling  a  modern  French 


Bed  and  Table ;  fn  m  a  painting. 


bed.  The  mattress  is  white,  striped  with  violet,  and  spotted 
with  gold  :  the  cushion  is  violet.  The  tunic  of  the  goddess 
is  blue,  the  bed,  the  table,  and  the  cornucopia,  gold.  This 
hwise  stands  just  by  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum,  adjoining  the 
broad  flight  of  steps  which  leads  up  to  the  ramparts.  Bonucci 
supposes  that  it  belonged  to  the  officer  appointed  to  take 
charge  of  the  gate  and  walls. 

We  may  take  this  opportunity  to  describe  the  nature  and 
arrangement  of  the  triclinium,  of  which  such  frequent  men- 
tion has  been  made.  In  the  earlier  times  of  Home  men  sat 
at  table — the  habit  of  reclining  was  introduced  from  Carthage 
after  the  Punic  wars.  At  fii'st  these  beds  were  clumsy  in 
form,  and  covered  with  mattresses  stuffed  with  rushes  or 
straw.  Hair  and  wool  mattresses  were  introduced  from  Gaul 
at  a  later  period,  and  were  soon  followed  by  cushions  stuffed 
with  feathers.  At  first  these  tricliniary  beds  were  small, 
low,  and  round,  and  made  of  wood  :  afterwards,  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  square  and  highly  ornamented  couches  came  into 


310 


POMPEII. 


fashion.  In  tlie  reign  of  Tiberius  tliey  began  to  be  veneered 
with  costly  woods  or  tortoiseshell,  and  were  covered  with 
valuable  embroideries,  the  richest  of  which  came  from  Baby- 
lon, and  cost  incredible  sums. 

Each  couch  contained  three  persons,  and,  properly,  the 
whole  arrangement  consisted  of  three  couches,  so  that  the 
number  at  table  did  not  exceed  the  number  of  the  Muses, 
and  each  person  had  his  seat  according  to  his  rank  and 


3    ^  ^    4  7 


8 


3 


Plan  of  a  rriclinium,  showing  the  disposition  of  the  guests. 

dignity.  The  places  were  thus  appropriated  :  —1.  The  host. 
2.  His  wife.  3.  Guest.  4.  Consular  place,  or  place  of 
honour.  This  was  the  most  convenient  situation  at  table, 
because  he  who  occupied  it,  resting  on  his  left  arm,  could 
easily  with  his  right  reach  any  part  of  the  table  without  in- 
convenience to  his  neighbours.  It  was  therefore  set  apart 
for  the  person  of  highest  rank.  5,  6,  7,  8,  9.  Other  guests. 
We  may  here  introduce  a  picture  of  a  domestic  supper-party. 
The  young  man  reclining  on  the  couch  is  di'inking  from  a 
horn  pierced  at  the  smaller  end,  so  as  to  allow  the  wine  to 
flow  in  a  thin  stream  into  his  mouth.  The  female  seated 
beside  him  stretches  out  her  hand  to  a  servant,  to  receive 
what  appears  to  be  her  myrotheca,  or  box  of  perfumes.  The 
table  and  the  ground  are  strewed  with  flowers. 

The  entertainment  itself  usually  comprised  three  services  ; 
the  first  consisting  of  fresh  eggs,  olives,  oysters,  salad,  and 
other  light  delicacies ;  the  second  of  made  dishes,  fish,  and 
roast  meats  ;  the  third  of  pastry,  confectionary,  and  fruits. 
A  remarkable  painting,  discovered  at  Pompeii,  giv    a  curious 


1 

2 


PRIVATE  HOUSES. 


311 


idea  of  a  complete  feast.  It  represents  a  table  set  out  with 
every  requisite  for  a  grand  dinner.  In  the  centre  is  a  large 
dish,  iu  which  four  peacocks  are  placed,  one  at  each  corner, 
forming  a  magnificent  dome  with  their  tails.    All  round  are 


Picture  representing  a  domestic  Supper-party. 


lobsters — one  holding  in  his  claws  a  blue  egg,  a  second  an 
oyster,  a  third  a  stuffed  rat,  a  fourth  a  little  basket  full  of 
grasshoppers.  Four  dishes  of  fish  decorate  the  bottom,  above 
which  are  several  partridges,  and  hares,  and  squirrels,  each 
holding  its  head  between  its  paws.  The  whole  is  surrounded 
by  something  resembling  a  German  sausage ;  then  comes  a 
row  of  yolks  of  eggs  ;  then  a  row  of  peaches,  small  melons, 
and  cherries ;  and  lastly,  a  row  of  vegetables  of  different 
sorts.  The  whole  is  covered  with  a  sort  of  green-coloured 
sauce.* 

Another  house,  also  of  the  minor  class,  yet  superior  to  any 
hitherto  described,  is  recommended  to  our  notice  by  the 
beauty  of  the  paintings  found.  That  the  proprietor  was  not 
rich  is  evident  from  its  limited  extent  and  accommodation  ; 


*  Donaldson. 


312 


POMPEII. 


yet  lie  had  some  small  property,  as  we  may  infer  from  the 
shop  communicating  with  the  house,  in  which  were  sold  such 
articles  of  agricultural  produce  as  were  not  required  for  the 

^  CO./  t 


Ground-plan  of  a  small  House. 

use  of  the  family.  1.  Prothyrum.  2.  Atrium  dis^pluviatum, 
a  rare  instance  of  this  method  of  building.  That  the  apart- 
ment in  question  belonged  to  this  class  of  atria  is  proved  by 
holes  in  the  outer  wall,  in  which  struts  to  support  the  pro- 
jecting eaves  were  fixed ;  and  also  by  the  impluvium,  3, 
which  has  no  issue  to  carry  off  the  water,  being  merely 
intended  to  receive  the  small  quantity  of  rain  which  fell 
through  the  aperture  of  the  comj^luvium.  And,  not  being 
exposed  to  the  heavy  drippings  of  the  roof,  the  low  wall 
round  the  impluvium  is  hollowed  into  little  compartments, 
to  be  filled  with  earth  and  planted  with  flowers.  4.  Well- 
hole  communicating  with  a  cistern  under  ground.  5.  Stair. 
6,  7.  Apartments  carefully  decorated,  but  with  nothing  to 
fix  their  destination  to  any  particular  purpose.  Probably  the 
larger  served  as  a  triclinium.  8.  Eoom,  probably  of  the 
atriensis,  the  slave  who  had  charge  of  the  house.  9.  Kitchen. 
10.  Shop. 

This  house  was  formerly  decorated  with  paintings  taken 
from  the  Odyssey,  and  from  the  elegant  fictions  of  Grecian 
mythology.  When  Mazois  visited  it  in  1812,  two  paintings 
in  the  atrium  were  still  in  existence,  though  in  a  very  perishing 
state.  Shortly  after  he  had  copied  them  they  fell,  owing  to 
the  plaster  detaching  itself  from  the  wall.  One  of  them  is 
taken  from  the  Odyssey,  and  represents  Ulysses  and  Circe,  at 


PPJVATE  HOUSES. 


313 


tlie  moment  wlien  the  hero,  having  drank  the  charmed  cup 
with  impunity,  by  virtue  of  the  antidote  given  him  by 
Mercury,  draws  his  sword  and  advances  to  avenge  his  com- 
panions.* The  goddess,  terrified,  makes  her  submission  at 
once,  as  described  by  Homer,  while  her  two  attendants  fly  in 
alarm  ;  yet  one  of  them,  witli  a  natural  curiosity,  cannot  resist 
the  temptation  to  look  back,  and  observe  the  termination  of 


Painting  representing  Circe  and  Ulysses. 


so  unexpected  a  scene.  Circe  uses  the  very  gesture  of  sup- 
plication so  constantly  described  by  Homer  and  the  tragedians, 
as  she  sinks  on  her  knees,  extending  one  hand  to  clasp  the 
knees  of  Ulysses,  with  the  other  endeavouring  to  touch  his 
beard.l  This  picture  is  remarkable,  as  teaching  us  the  origin 
of  that  ugly  and  unmeaning  glory  with  which  the  heads  of 
saints  are  often  surrounded.  The  Italians  borrowed  it  from 
the  Greek  artists  of  the  lower  empire,  in  whose  paintings  it 

*  "  Hence,  seek  the  sty — there  wallow  with  thy  friends." 
!She  spake.    I  drawing  from  beside  niy  thigh 
My  faulclrion  keen,  with  death-denouncing  looks 
Rushed  on  Iier ;  she  with  a  shrill  scream  of  fear 
Ran  under  my  raised  arm,  seized  fast  my  knees, 
And  in  winged  accents  plaintive  thus  began : 

*'  Say,  who  art  thou,"  kc. — Cowper's  Odyss.  x.  320. 
f  She  sat  before  him,  clasped  w^ith  her  left  hand 
His  knees  ;  her  right  beneath  his  chin  she  placed, 
And  thus  the  king,  Saturnian  Jove,  implored. — II.  i,  500. 


314 


POMPEII. 


generally  has  the  appearance,  as  we  believe,  of  a  solid  plate 
of  gold.  The  glory  round  Circe's  head  has  the  same  cha- 
racter, the  outer  limb  or  circle  being  strongly  defined,  not 
shaded  off  and  dividing  into  rays,  as  we  usually  see  it  in  the 
Italian  school.  This  glory  was  called  nimbus,*  or  aureola, 
and  is  defined  by  Servius  to  be  "  the  luminous  fluid  which 
encircles  the  heads  of  the  gods."  It  belongs  with  peculiar 
propriety  to  Circe,  as  the  daughter  of  the  sun.  The  emperors, 
with  their  usual  modesty,  assumed  it  as  the  mark  of  their 
divinity ;  and,  under  this  respectable  patronage,  it  passed, 
like  many  other  Pagan  superstitions  and  customs,  into  the 
use  of  the  church. 

The  other  picture  represents  Achilles  at  Scyros,  where 
Thetis  had  hidden  him  among  the  daughters  of  Lycomedes, 
to  prevent  his  engaging  in  the  Trojan  war.  Ulysses  dis- 
covered him  by  bringing  for  sale  arms  mixed  with  female 
trinkets,  in  the  character  of  a  merchant.  The  story  is  well 
known.  The  painting  represents  the  moment  when  the 
young  hero  is  seizing  the  arms.  Deidamia  seems  not  to 
know  what  to  make  of  the  matter,  and  tries  to  hold  him  back, 
while  Ulysses  is  seen  behind  with  his  finger  on  his  lips,  closely 
observing  all  that  passes. 

We  will  now  take  a  house  of  a  better  class,  yet  still  inter- 
mediate between  those  which  we  have  been  describing  and 
the  houses  of  the  first  class  in  Pompeii ;  and  there  is  none 
which  will  suit  our  purpose  better  than  the  Casa  Carolina, 

*  Hence  we  may  collect  the  true  meaning  of  nimbus  in  the  line — 

.  Summas  arces  Tritonia  Pallas 

Insedit,  nimuo  effulgens,  et  Goigone  sa^va. — JEn.  xi.  615. 
Mazois  continues,  that  sculptors,  not  having  the  resources  of  colour,  and  ot 
light  and  shade,  placed  a  solid  disc  about  the  heads  of  their  statues  to  represent 
the  nimbus,  and  that  this  was  the  fxrjVLo-Ko^  spoken  of  by  Aristophanes,  Aves,  v. 
1114,  edDind. 

Tjv  5e  jULTj  KpLV7}T€,  ;!(aAveveo-0e  fxy\vtcrK.ov<;  <|)opetv, 

oxmep  a.v^.pLdvT€<s'  ws  vixCyv  os  av  [xr)  fj.yjv  exr}, 

OTav  e;)(T7Te  x^avLha  \evKr]V  Tore  fxa^icrB'  ovtco  dLKrjV 

Soi<Te6'  rifj.lv,  ndcTL  rots  opvLdi  KaraTLkioixcvoc. 
The  explanation  is  plausil)le,  and  it  seems  more  probable  that  the  [xrjvCa-Kog  was 
used  for  this  purpose,  than  that  it  was  merely  to  protect  the  statue  against  the 
ill  manners  alluded  to  in  the  text,  as  the  Scholiast  says.  But  we  are  not 
aware  that  there  is  any  positive  evidence  in  its  favour,  or  that  any  statues 
with  the  fxrivi<TKo<;  have  been  found,  though  the  aureola  has  frequently  been 
observed  on  bas-reliefs  representing  Apollo  or  Diana. — See  Antiquites  d'Her- 
cuianeum,  vol.  ii.  p.  35. 


PRIVATE  HOUSi:S. 


315 


as  it  is  called,  the  House  of  Queen  Caroline/'  so  named 
because  it  was  excavated  in  her  presence.  1.  Vestibule. 
2.  Corinthian  atrium,  a  species  of  atrium  of  rare  occurrence 
in  Pompeii.  The  roof  is  supported  by  square  pillars,  painted 
with  foliage,  as  if  in  imitation  of  climbing-plants,  placed  upon 
a  pluteum  or  dwarf  wall  which  surrounds  the  impluvium,  or 
court  rather,  for  there  was  a  small  basin  in  the  centre  for  the 


Plan  of  the  House  of  Queen  Caroline. 


reception  of  rain  water,  which  was  further  supplied  by  a 
fountain.  5.  Kitchen,  lighted  by  windows  to  the  street. 
6,  7,  8,  12.  Kooms  for  various  purposes  surrounding  the 
atrium.  Opposite  to  the  prothyrum  is  the  tablinum,  9, 
entirely  open  to  the  atrium  as  Vitruvius  describes,  but  closed 
at  the  other  end,  which  is  not  usual.  10.  Ala,  richly  decorated 
with  tasteful  paintings,  which,  when  Mazois  wrote,  were  in 
perfect  preservation.    11.  Lararium,  decorated  as  richly  as 

*  The  wife  of  Muiat. 


316 


POMPEII. 


the  ala,  and  in  the  same  taste.  13.  Passage  to  another 
division  of  the  house,  which  contains  all  the  parts  necessaiy 
for  a  small  but  separate  establishment,  and  could  have  been 
made  such  by  merely  closing  up  the  door  of  communication. 
It  has,  14,  its  own  entry ;  a  court,  15 ;  a  kitchen,  18 ;  and 
four  rooms  marked  17,  for  the  various  uses  of  the  family.  In 
the  centre  of  the  court,  where  we  see  the  places  of  two 
pillars,  destined  apparently  to  support  a  trellis,  like  that 
described  in  the  former  part  of  this  chapter,  there  is  a  circular 
triclinium,  if  the  expression  is  allowable,  of  masonry.  This 
was  properly  called  stihadium,^  as  we  learn  from  Servius's 
definition  of  that  word,  that  it  is  '*  a  semicircular  bed  suitable 
to  a  round  table,  which  the  Eomans  used  instead  of  three 
beds,  after  tables  made  of  citron  wood  came  into  general 
use."f  This  sort  of  table  was  also  called  sigma,  from  its 
likeness  to  the  Greek  letter,  as  we  learn  from  Martial,  who 
also  tells  us  how  many  persons  it  was  meant  to  hold. 

Accipe  luiiata  scriptum  testudine  sigma. 

Oc.to  capit;  veniat  quisquis  amicus  erit. — xiv.  87. 

In  another  epigram  he  speaks  of  seven,  as  the  number  which 
his  sigma  would  hold.  In  the  centre  stood  a  round  table  on 
one  foot,  called  thence  monopodium.  Several  marble  tables  of 
this  sort  have  been  found  during  the  coui^se  of  the  excavations. 

The  paintings  found  here,  described  by  Mazois  as  being  in 
good  preservation,  have  been  so  often  wetted  to  refresh  the 
colours  for  the  gratification  of  visitors,  that  very  few  traces  of 
them  now  remain.  Two  of  them  are  engraved  in  Sir  W.  Gell's 
Pompeii.  The  subject  of  one  is  doubtful ;  it  has  been  ex- 
plained to  be  Diana  and  Endymion,  or  Venus  and  Adonis  : 
the  latter  seems  to  be  the  most  probable.  It  contains  only 
three  figures  :  a  youth  sitting  do\vn,  whose  head  is  encircled 
with  rays  of  light,  holding  two  spears ;  a  female  figure  of 
great  beauty  approaching  him ;  and  between  them  Hymen, 
with  his  torch  and  a  palm-branch.  The  female  is  rather 
scantily  dressed,  but  richly  ornamented  with  earrings,  neck- 
lace, armlets,  and  bracelets.  The  other  picture  represents 
Perseus  and  Andromeda,  after  the  hero  has  slain  the  monster. 
He  holds  behind  him  something  like  a  skull,  which  is  pro- 

*  The  diminutive  of  o-Tt/Sa?,  a  bed,  from  o-ret^w,  to  tread ;  properly  a  bed  of 
leaves  and  herbs. 

t  Serv.  ap.  .En.  i.  702. 


PKIVATE  HOUSES. 


317 


bably  intended  for  Medusa's  head,  and  his  double-pointed 
sword,  a  very  inconvenient-looking  weapon,  lies  beside  him 
on  the  ground.  Andromeda  is  in  full  costume,  and  wears  a 
white  tunic  with  a  blue  peplum,  or  large  wrapper.  The 
ancient  painters  seem  to  have  had  no  very  wdde  choice  of 
subjects.  Almost  all  their  serious  compositions  are  mytho- 
logical, and  the  desertion  of  Ariadne  and  the  deliverance  of 
Andromeda  recur  so  frequently  at  Pompeii,  that  we  may 
conclude  these  stories  enjoyed  a  very  extensive  popularity. 
They  were  indeed  well  suited  to  that  display  of  the  human 
figure,  in  which  the  ancients  took  so  much  delight.  In  a 
neighbouring  house  is  a  beautiful  painting  of  Venus  and 
Adonis.  His  dogs  lie  at  his  feet,  and  a  Cupid  armed  with 
two  spears  stands  beside  him,  bewailing  tlie  untimely  fate  of 
the  young  hunter.  In  the  same  house  are  several  tasteful 
decorations,  and  among  them  marine  horses  engaged  in  a 
variety  of  gambols.* 


*  Cell. 


Alercuiy,  from  a  painting. 


318 


POMPEII. 


Dancing  Faun. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

HOUSES  OF  PANSA  AND  SALLUST. 

The  house  which  we  are  now  about  to  describe  is,  in  respect 
of  regularity  of  plan  and  extent,  the  most  remarkable  contained 
within  the  walls.  It  was  evidently  the  residence  of  one  of  the 
chief  men  of  Pompeii,  and  from  the  words  PANSAM.  JED, 
painted  in  red  near  the  principal  entrance,  but  now  obliterated, 
has  been  usually  denominated  the  House  of  Pansa.*  It  is 
well  observed,  however,  by  Mazois,  that  the  name  being  in  the 
accusative,  this  is  evidently  one  of  the  laudatory  inscriptions 
in  honour  of  an  sedile,  or  some  other  high  officer,  common  in 
Pompeii  ;  and  that  though  the  aidile  Pansa  is  as  likely  to 
have  lived  here  as  any  other  person,  there  is  no  dependence 
on  the  correctness  of  the  name  thus  given.  We  shall  con- 
tinue, however,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  to  use  the  name 
under  which  it  is  generally  known.  Several  inscriptions 
bearing  the  name  of  Cuspius  Pansa,  aidile,  have  been  found. 

By  reference  to  the  map,  in  which  it  is  marked,  the  reader 
will  see  it  occupies  an  entire  insula,  that  is,  it  is  completely 

*  The  whole  inscription  was  : — 

PANSAM  -^D. 
PAKATVS  HOG. 

whence  it  is  as  likely  to  have  been  the  house  of  Paratus  as  of  Pansa.  See 
Pomp.  Ant.  Hist.^  t  i.  fasc.  iii.  p.  157.  The  inscription  was  not  laudatory, 
but  proposed  Pansa  as  sedile.    On  such  inscriptions  see  below,  Chap.  ix. — E 


319 


HOUSES  OF  PANSA  AND  SALLUST. 


surrounded  by  streets,  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  in  one  of 
the  best  situations,  close  to  the  baths,  and  near  the  Forum. 


Including  the  garden,  which  occupies  a  third  of  the  whole 
length,  the  area  on  which  it  stands  is  about  three  hundred 


320 


POMPEII. 


feet  by  one  hundred  :  part  of  this,  however,  as  is  usual,  is 
occupied  by  shops  belonging  to  the  owner,  and  let  out  by 
him. 

a,  the  Yestibulum,  the  inner  threshold  of  which  had  a 
mosaic  with  the  inscription  SAL  YE.  1.  Prothyrum  paved 
with  mosaic.  2.  Tuscan  atrium.  3.  Impluvium.  4.  Alas. 
6.  Open  tablinum,  paved  with  mosaic,  serving  as  a  passage  to 
the  peristyle,  8.    There  is  also  however  a  passage  (fauces), 

6,  beside  it ;  and  though  the  tablinum  was  left  open  for  the 
sake  of  the  effect  produced  by  thus  making  the  whole  length 
of  the  house  visible  at  once,  it  was  probably  closed  by  a 
bronze  or  wooden  railing,  so  as  only  to  allow  the  master  of 
the  house  or  the  family  to  pass  through  it.    The  apartments, 

7,  on  each  side  of  the  atrium  were  probably  meant  for  the 
reception  of  guests  entitled  to  claim  hospitality,  who  came 
to  the  House  of  Pansa  when  pleasure  or  business  brought 
them  to  Pompeii.  We  have  already  stated,  that  when  there 
was  no  hospitium,  or  separate  building  for  the  reception  of 
such  persons,  it  was  customary  to  lodge  them  in  the  atrium,  or 
public  part  of  the  house.  The  larger  rooms,  beside  the  tablinum, 
marked  7,  might  serve  for  winter  reception-rooms  for  clients, 
winter  triclinia,  or  many  other  purposes,  all  equally  probable 
and  equally  uncertain.  9.  The  peristyle.  10.  Private  pas- 
sage* and  2^ost{cum.  On  the  pier,  between  the  two  doors,  was  a 
painting  representing  one  of  the  guardian  serpents,  of  which 
we  shall  speak  fully  in  describing  the  House  of  Sallust,  by 
the  side  of  which  is  a  projecting  brick,  to  receive  a  lamp 
lighted  in  honour  of  the  Dii  Custodes.  This  painting,  from 
its  situation,  could  only  be  seen  by  persons  within  the  house  ; 
but  on  the  opposite  wall  there  was  a  cross  worked  in  bas- 
relief  upon  a  panel  of  white  stucco,  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
visible  to  all  passers.  On  this  symbol  Mazois  has  founded 
a  conjecture  that  the  owner  of  the  shop  may  have  been  a 
Christian.  His  words  are  to  the  following  purport :  "  Though 
the  first  Christians  have  represented  this  symbol  of  Chiis- 
tianity  under  the  form  of  a  Greek,  or  equibrachial  cross,  and 
the  limbs  of  this  cross  are  of  unequal  length,  I  cannot  bring 
myself  to  see  merely  some  unknown  instrument  in  it,  as 

*  The  ase  of  such  a  passage  to  a  great  man  is  obv^ious : — 
 Rebus  omissis 

Atiia  servantem  postico  falle  clientem. — Hor.  Ep.  i.  v.  50. 


HOUSES  OF  PANSA  AND  SALLUST. 


321 


many  persons  liave  done,  to  whom  I  have  shown  this  drawing 
of  it.  In  truth,  it  is  difficult  not  to  recognize  in  it  the  Latin 
cross,  which  would  be  nothing  extraordinary,  since  Pompeii 
was  not  destroyed  till  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  Titus. 
But  if  it  be  a  cross,  how  can  we  explain  the  juxtaposition, 
the  mixture  of  this  symbol  of  a  new  and  pure  religion  with 
the  images  and  practices  of  one  of  the  most  absurd  supersti- 
tions of  antiquity  ?  It  is  hard  to  conceive  that  the  same 
man  could  at  once  bow  before  the  cross  of  Christ,  and  pay 
homage  to  Janus,  Ferculus,  Limentinus,  Cardia,  the  deities 
of  the  thresholds  and  the  hinges  of  doors ;  still  more  that  he 
should  adore  it  in  combination  with  that  emblem  of  an  in- 
comprehensible worship  which  is  close  at  hand.*  Perhaps 
at  this  time  the  cross  was  a  mysterious  hieroglyphic  of  mean- 
ing unknown,  except  to  those  who  had  embraced  the  Christian 
faith;  which,  placed  here  among  the  symbols  of  paganism,  as 
if  in  testimony  of  gratitude,  informed  the  fiiithful  that  the 
truth  had  here  found  an  asylum  with  a  poor  man,  under  the 
safeguard  of  all  the  popular  superstitions. "t  On  the  proba- 
bility of  this  conjecture  we  shall  olfer  no  opinion,  leaving  it 
to  the  decision  of  those  who  are  best  acquainted  with  the 
minutiae  of  religious  history.  If  admitted,  it  would  carry 
the  use  of  the  cross  to  an  earlier  period  than  any  we  believe 
to  which  it  has  yet  been  traced. J  But  to  return  from  this 
digression.  11.  Basin.  12.  Bedchambers.  The  centre  one 
seems  to  have  been  a  procaeton,  or  anteroom,  since  it  com- 

*  Above  the  aperture  of  the  oven  in  bas-relief ;  below  are  the  words,  "  Hie 
habitat  felicitas." 

t  Mazois,  part  ii.  p.  84. 

X  This  very  unsatisfactory  story  contains  the  only  indication  of  Christianity, 
if  such  it  can  be  called,  hitherto  discovered  at  Pompeii.  That  Christians  may 
have  existed  there  is  quite  possible,  but  that  they  should  have  ventured  to 
exhibit  any  public  sign  of  their  l  eligion  is  in  the  highest  degree  improbable, 
as  well  as  that  they  should  have  exhibited  them  in  company  with  pagan 
emblems.  No  vestiges  remain  of  the  objects  so  vaguely  described  by  Mazois ; 
and  the  editor  has  been  assured  by  the  Commendatore  Fiorelli,  the  present 
learned  director  of  the  excavations,  that  no  Christian  symbols  have  ever  been 
discovered  at  Pompeii.  It  is  said  indeed,  that  in  a  house  in  the  Vtco  dei 
Lupanari  may  be  traced,  written  in  charcoal,  the  letters  .  .  .  NI  GAVDIi 
.  .  .  HRISTIAXII;  which  have  with  probability  been  supplemented,  igm 
gawie  Christiane  ^rejoice  in  the  tire.  Christian).  But  these  words  may  have 
reference  to  the  burning  of  the  Christians  at  Rome,  in  the  time  of  Nero  (see 
Overbeck,  B.  ii.  S.  115),  and  they  proceeded  at  all  events  from  a  pagan. — Ed. 

Y 


322 


POMPEII. 


mimicates  with  tlie  one  beyond  it.  13.  Is  called  by  Donald- 
son the  library ;  by  Mazois,  a  pantry,  or  room  to  arrange 
the  dishes  before  they  were  introduced  into  14,  the  triclinium. 
15.  Probably  winter  triclinium.  Donaldson  calls  this  room 
the  lararium.  16.  Large  oecus.  We  may  call  this  a  cyzi- 
cene  oecus,  or  hall,  since  it  exactly  corresponds  with  the 
definition  of  this  sort  of  apartment  given  before,  in  its 
spaciousness,  its  northern  aspect,  and  its  large  opening  to 
the  garden.  17.  Fauces  leading  from  the  peristyle  to  the 
garden,  to  avoid  making  a  passage-room  of  the  oecus.  18. 
Kitchen.  19.  Servants'  hall,  with  a  back  door  to  the  street, 
or  it  may  be  a  stable.  20.  Cabinet  looking  to  the  garden. 
21.  Portico  of  two  stories  ;  a  clear  indication  that  this  house 
had  at  least  one  uj^per  floor.  The  staircase  however  has  so 
entirely  perished  that  its  site  is  unknown,  although  there  is 
some  indication  of  one  in  the  passage  (10).  22.  Garden  :  in 
one  cornel-,  27,  is  a  reservoir  supplying  a  tank,  28. 

Hitherto  we  have  been  exclusively  concerned  with  the 
private  house  of  Pansa,  but  the  insula  contains  a  good  deal 
which  was  not  in  his  own  occupation,  and  which  indeed  we 
may  conjecture  produced  him  a  handsome  rental.  23.  Four 
shops,  let  out  to  tenants.  24.  Shop  belonging  to  the  house, 
probably  intended  for  the  sale  of  the  spare  agricultural  pro- 
duce of  the  owner's  estates.  A  slave  named  dispensator  had 
the  charge  of  it,  and  seems  to  have  occupied  the  room  behind, 
which  has  an  entrance  both  into  the  shop  and  atrium.  The 
produce  of  the  farms  of  the  modern  Italian  nobles  is  still 
vended  in  the  same  vvay,  in  a  small  room  on  the  ground-floor 
of  their  palaces.  25,  29.  Two  baking  establishments,  the 
latter  having  one  of  the  shops  numbered  23. 

The  ground  plan  will  indicate  the  disposition  of  the  other 
bakery.  In  the  centre  of  the  large  apartment,  26,  are  three 
mills,  a.  a,  a,  and  near  them  a  large  table,  h.  Flanking  the 
entrance  to  the  oven,  /.  are  thi-ee  large  vases,  and  in  the  left- 
hand  corner  is  a  kneading-trough,  c,  ^vith.  two  coppers  placed 
over  furnaces.  The  apartment,  31,  from  its  communication 
both  with  the  shop  and  the  bakery,  was  probably  used  as  a 
storeroom. 

The  two  compartments  marked  30  are  houses  of  a  very 
mean  class,  having  formerly  an  upper  story.  Behind  the 
last  of  them  is  a  court,  which  gives  light  to  one  of  the 


HOUSES  OF  PANSA  AND  SALLUST. 


323 


chambers  of  Pansa's  house.  On  the  other  side  of  the  island 
are  three  houses  (32),  small  but  of  much  more  respectable 
extent  and  accommodation,  which  probably  were  also  meant 
to  be  let.  In  that  nearest  the  garden  were  found  the  skele- 
tons of  four  women,  with  gold  ear  and  tiuger  rings  having 
engraved  stones,  besides  other  valuables ;  showing  that  such 
inquilini,  or  lodgers,  were  not  always  of  the  lowest  class. 


View  of  tUc  Entrance  to  the  House  of  Pansa. 


Our  view  of  this  house  is  taken  from  the  front  of  the  door- 
way    It  offers  to  the  eye,  successively,  the  doorway,  the 


324 


POMPEII. 


prothyrum,  the  atrium,  with  its  impluvium,  the  Ionic  peris- 
tyle, and  the  garden  wall,  with  Vesuvius  in  the  distance. 
The  entrance  is  decorated  with  two  pilasters  of  the  Corinthian 
order.  Besides  the  outer  door,  there  was  another  at  the  end 
of  the  prothyrum.  to  secure  the  atrium  against  too  early  in- 
trusion. The  latter  apartment  was  paved  with  marble,  with 
a  gentle  inclination  towards  the  impluvium.  Through  the 
tablinum  the  peristyle  is  seen,  with  two  of  its  Ionic  capitals 
still  remaining.  The  columns  are  sixteen  in  number,  fluted, 
except  for  about  one-third  of  their  height  from  the  bottom. 
They  are  made  of  a  volcanic  stone,  and,  with  their  capitals, 
are  of  good  execution.  But  at  some  period  subsequent  to 
the  erection  of  the  house,  probably  after  the  earthquake, 
A.  D.  63,  they  have  been  covered  with  hard  stucco,  and  large 
leaves  of  the  same  material  set  under  the  volutes,  so  as  to 
transform  them  into  a  sort  of  pseudo-Corinthian,  or  Com- 
posite order.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  exclusively 
Italian  order,  which  we  call  Composite,  may  have  originated 
in  a  similar  caprice.  Of  the  disposition  of  the  garden, 
which  occupied  the  open  part  of  the  peristyle,  we  have  little 
to  say.  Probably  it  was  planted  with  choice  flowers.  Slabs 
of  marble  were  placed  at  the  angles  to  receive  the  drippings 
of  the  roof,  which  were  conducted  by  metal  conduits  into  the 
central  basin,  which  is  about  six  feet  in  depth,  and  was 
painted  green.  In  the  centre  of  it  there  stood  a  jet  d'eau, 
as  there  are  indications  enough  to  prove.*  This  apartment, 
if  such  it  may  be  called,  was  unusually  spacious,  measuring 
about  sixty-five  feet  by  fifty.  The  height  of  the  columns 
was  equal  to  the  width  of  the  colonnade,  about  sixteen  feet. 
Their  unfluted  part  is  painted  yellow,  the  rest  is  coated  with 
white  stucco.  The  floor  is  elevated  two  steps  above  the 
level  of  the  tablinum. 

A  curious  religious  painting,  now  almost  efiaced,  was 
found  in  the  kitchen,  representing  the  w^orship  offered  to  the 
Lares,  under  whose  protection  and  custody  the  provisions 
and  all  the  cooking  utensils  were  placed.  In  the  centre  is 
a  sacrifice  in  honour  of  those  deities,  who  are  represented 
below^  in  the  usual  form  of  two  huge  serpents  brooding  over 
an  altar.    There  is  something  remarkable  in  the  upper 


*  Donaldson. 


HOUSES  OF  PANSA  AND  SALLUST. 


325 


figures,  of  which  Mazois,  from  whom  our  engraving  is  copied, 
has  given  no  explanation.  The  female  figure  in  the  centre 
holds  a  cornucopia,  and  each  of  the  male  figures  holds  a 
small  vase  in  the  hand  nearer  to  the  altar,  and  a  horn  in 
the  other.  All  the  faces  in  his  engraving  are  quite  black, 
and  the  heads  of  the  male  figures  are  surrounded  with  some- 
thing resembling  a  glory.  Their  dress  in  general,  and 
especially  their  boots,  which  are  just  like  the  Hungarian 


A  religious  Painting  in  the  Kitchen  of  the  House  of  Pansa. 


boots  now  worn  on  the  stage,  appear  different  from  anything 
which  is  to  be  met  with  elsewliere.  Are  these  figures  meant  for 
the  Lares  themselves  ?  On  each  side  are  represented  different 
sorts  of  eatables.  On  the  left  a  bunch  of  small  birds,  a  string 
of  fish,  a  boar  with  a  girth  about  his  body,  and  a  magnifi- 
cently curling  tail,  and  a  few  loaves,  or  rather  cakes,  of  the 
precise  pattern  of  some  which  have  been  found  in  Pompeii  : 
on  the  right,  an  eel  spitted  on  a  wire,  a  ham,  a  boar's  liead, 
and  a  joint  of  meat,  which,  as  pig-meat  seems  to  have  been 
in  request  here,  we  may  conjecture  to  be  a  loin  of  pork ;  at 
least  it  is  as  like  that  as  anything  else.  It  is  suspended  by 
a  reed,  as  is  still  done  at  Rome.  The  execution  of  this 
painting  is  coarse  and  careless  in  the  extreme,  yet  there  is 
a  spirit  and  freedom  of  touch  which  has  hit  off  the  character 
of  the  objects  represented,  and  forbids  us  to  impute  the 


326 


POMPEII. 


negligence  which  is  displayed  to  incapacity.  Another 
object  of  interest  in  the  kitchen  is  a  stove  for  stews  and 
similar  preparations,  very  much  like  those  charcoal  stoves 
which  are  seen  in  extensive  kitchens  at  the  present  day. 
Before  it  lie  a  knife,  a  strainer,  and  a  strange-looking  sort 


stove  in  the  Kitchen  of  the  House  of  Pansa. 


of  a  frying-pan,  with  four  spherical  cavities,  as  if  it  were 
meant  to  cook  eggs.  A  similar  one,  containing  twenty-nine 
egg-holes,  has  been  found,  which  is  circular,  about  fifteen 
inches  in  diameter,  and  without  a  handle.  Another  article 
of  kitchen  furniture  is  a  sort  of  flat  ladle  pierced  with  holes. 


A  flat  Ladle  called  Trua. 


said  to  belong  to  the  class  called  trua.  It  was  meant  appa- 
rently to  stir  up  vegetables,  (fee,  while  boiling,  and  to  strain 
the  water  from  them. 

This  house  has  been  long  excavated,  and  perhaps  that  is 
the  reason  that,  considering  its  extent  and  splendour,  the 
notices  of  it  are  particularly  meagre.  Of  the  decorations  we 
have  been  able  to  procure  no  detailed  accounts,  though 
several  paintings  are  said  to  have  been  found  in  it,  and 
among  them,  one  of  Danae  amid  the  golden  shower,  deserving 
of  notice.  Of  the  garden  little  can  be  said,  for  little  is 
known.    Accordirg  to  the  best  indications  which  Mazois 


328 


POMPEII. 


could  observe,  it  consisted  of  a  number  of  straight  parallel 
beds,  divided  by  narrow  paths,  which  gave  access  to  them 
for  horticultural  purposes,  but  with  no  walk  for  air  and 
exercise  except  the  portico  which  adjoins  the  house. 

To  give  a  better  notion  of  the  appearance  and  splendour 
of  a  Roman  house  we  conclude  our  account  with  a  view  of 
the  interior,  as  it  has  been  restored  by  the  taste  and  learning 
of  Mr.  Gandy  Dering  in  the  first  volume  of  '  Pompeiana,'  by 
whose  permission  a  copy  of  the  plate  is  here  inserted.  The 
view  is  taken  from  the  atrium,  looking  through  the  tablinum 
and  peristyle  to  the  garden.  The  decorations  are  taken 
from  indications  still  existing  which  point  out  what  had 
formerly  been  here,  or  from  specimens  preserved  in  other 
parts  of  Pompeii.  The  figures  of  the  Muses  are  taken  from 
paintings  found  on  the  walls  of  a  house ;  the  candelabra, 
tripods,  &c.,  from  articles  preserved  in  the  Neapolitan 
Museum.  The  doors  on  each  side  of  the  atrium  gave  access 
to  the  apartments  marked  7.  Beyond  them  on  each  side  are 
the  alpe,  and  in  the  centre  the  tablinum,  all  closed  or  capable 
of  being  closed  by  parajpetasmata,  or  curtains,  for  the  use  of 
doors  for  these  large  openings  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
general. 

Inferior  to  the  House  of  Pansa,  and  to  some  others  in  size, 
but  second  to  none  in  elegance  of  decoration  and  in  the  interest 
which  it  excites,  is  a  house  in  the  street  leading  from  the 
Gate  of  Herculaneum  to  the  Forum,  called  by  some  the  House 
of  Act83on.  front  a  painting  found  in  it  ;  by  others  the  House 
of  Caius  Sallustius.  It  occupies  the  southernmost  portion 
of  an  insula  extending  backwards  to  the  city  walls.  It  is 
remarkable  that  the  architects  of  Pompeii  seem  to  have  been 
careless  for  the  most  part  whether  they  built  on  a  regular  or 
an  irregular  area.  The  practice  of  surrounding  the  owner's 
abode  with  shops,  enabled  them  to  turn  to  advantage  the 
sides  and  corners  of  any  piece  of  ground,  however  misshapen. 
Thus  in  the  plan  before  us  the  apartments  of  the  dwelling- 
house  are  almost  all  well  shaped  and  rectangular,  though  not 
one  of  the  four  angles  of  the  area  is  a  right  angle. 

1.  Prothyrum.  2.  Large  hall,  serving  as  a  vestibule,  as  is 
pretty  obvious  from  its  arrangement.  In  the  comparatively 
humble  edifices  of  Pompeii,  the  reader  will  not  of  course 
expect  to  find  that  splendid  provision  for  the  convenient 


HOUSES  OF  PANSA  AND  SALLUST. 


329 


reception  of  a  crowd  of  importunate  suitors  wliicli  we  have 
described  in  speaking  of  the  palaces  of  Eome ;  still  it  is 
interesting  to  trace  the  same  disposition  of  apartments  on  a 
smaller  scale,  especially  as  this  throws  some  light  upon  the 
contested  question  of  the  Greek  or  Koman  origin  of  the 
private  houses.  There  are  four  doors.  One  02)ens  to  the 
prothyrum,  another  to  the  street— a  large  opening,  closed, 
according  to  Mazois,  with  quadrivalve  doors,  or  doors  folding 
back  upon  themselves,  like  window-shutters.  Of  the  other 
two,  both  communicate  with  the  atrium,  one  directly,  the 


other  through  an  intermediate  room,  16,  probably  the  ceIJa 
osiiarii,  the  porter's  closet,  so  that  at  night,  when  the  doors 
of  the  atrium  were  closed,  no  one  could  enter  without  his 
knowledge.  3.  Shop  communicating  with  the  house  for  the 
sale  of  the  produce  of  the  ju-oprietor's  estates.  Jars,  like 
those  before  described,  are  seen  set  in  the  counter,  probably 
to  receive  his  oil  or  olives.  4.  Shop.  6.  Shop  called  a  tlier- 
mopolinm,  with  two  rooms  backwards.    Between  4  and  5,  in 


330 


POMPEII. 


the  party-wall,  is  the  02)eniiig  of  a  cistern,  common  to  both. 
6.  Bakehouse.  There  were  rooms  over  it,  as  is  proved  by  a 
staircase.  The  four  first  steps,  steep  and  inconvenient,  were 
of  stone,  and  consequently  still  remain.  The  sites  of  three 
mills,  a,  a,  a.  are  laid  do\\Ti.  7.  Oven.  8,  9.  Eooms  belong- 
ing to  the  bakehouse.  10.  Tuscan  atrium.  11.  lAlarble 
impluvium.  12.  Antechamber  of  a  large  oecus,  or  hall,  13, 
whic)?.  perhaps  was  the  winter  triclinium.  This  conjecture 
is  founded  partly  on  its  neighbourhood  to  the  oven,  which 
would  keep  it  warm  and  di*y,  and  in  a  comfortable  state  for 
winter  use,  partly  from  its  size  and  shape.  The  length  is 
about  twenty- four  feet,  the  breadth  twelve,  which  exactly 
agrees  with  the  directions  of  Yitruvius,  that  the  length  of 
a  triclinium  should  be  double  its  breadth.  A  further  reason 
for  thus  appropriating  it  may  be  found  in  its  central  situation, 
which  is  such  that  it  must  have  been  very  ill  lighted,  if 
lighted  at  all.  It  was  probably  therefore  intended  chiefly 
for  evening  use.  14,  15.  Eooms  probably  for  the  reception  of 
strangers,  which,  where  there  was  no  hospitium,  generally 
were  placed  round  the  atrium.  The  walls  of  15  are  pre- 
served up  to  the  cornice,  and  are  elegantly  stuccoed  and 
painted.  17.  Alae.  That  on  the  right  opens  into  a  cabinet, 
probably  that  of  the  airiensis.  To  correspond  with  the  door- 
way, there  was  in  the  other  ala  a  false  doorway,  which  served 
as  a  lararium,  as  the  paintings  which  were  found  in  it  prove. 
18.  Open  room  and  staircase  leading  to  a  winter  apartment 
placed  above  the  oven.  19.  Tablinum,  having  at  its  back  a 
low  parapet  wall.  20.  Fauces.  21.  Portico.  22.  Summer 
triclinium.  23.  Cabinet.  24.  Garden  or  xystus.  25.  Tri- 
clinium in  the  oj)en  air,  covered  by  a  trellis.  26.  Kitchen. 
27.  Back  entrance.  28.  Chamber.  29.  Entrance  to  vene- 
reum. 30.  Lodge  for  a  slave  whose  duty  was  to  keej)  the 
door  and  j)revent  intrusion.  31,  32.  Portico  and  court  of 
the  venereum.  33,  34.  Cabinets  opening  from  the  portico. 
35.  Triclinium.  36.  Open  space  containing  a  stove,  and 
staircase  to  the  terrace  above  the  portico. 

Oui'  general  view  of  this  house  is  taken  from  the  street  in 
front,  and  runs  completely  through  to  the  garden  wall.  One 
of  the  pilasters  which  flank  the  doorway  has  its  capital  still 
in  good  preservation.  It  is  cut  out  of  grey  lava,  and  repre- 
sents a  Silenus  and  Faun  side  by  side,  each  holding  one  end 


332 


POMPEII. 


of  an  empty  leather  bottle,  thrown  over  their  shoulders. 
Oinaments  of  this  character,  which  can  be  comprehended 
under  none  of  the  orders  of  architecture,  are  common  in 
Pompeii,  and  far  from  unpleasing  in  their  effect,  how^ever 
contrary  to  established  principles.  On  the  right  is  the  large 
opening  into  the  vestibule.  In  the  centre  of  the  view  is  the 
atrium,  easily  recognized  by  the  impluvium,  and  beyond  it 
through  the  tablinum  are  seen  the  pillars  of  the  portico. 
Beyond  the  impluvium  is  the  place  of  a  small  altar  for  the 
worship  of  the  Lares.  A  bronze  hind,  through  the  mouth  of 
which  a  stream  of  water  flow^ed,  formerly  stood  in  the  centre 
of  the  basin.  It  bore  a  figure  of  Hercules  upon  its  back. 
The  walls  of  the  atrium  and  tablinum  are  curiously  stuccoed 
in  large  raised  panels,  with  deep  channels  between  them,  the 
panels  being  painted  of  different  colours,  strongly  contrasted 
with  each  other.  We  find  among  them  different  shades  of 
the  same  colour,  several  reds  for  instance,  as  sinopis,  cin- 
nabar, and  others.  This  sort  of  decoration  has  caused  some 
persons  to  call  this  the  house  of  a  colour-seller — a  conjecture 
entirely  at  variance  with  the  luxury  and  elegance  which 
reign  in  it.  The  floor  w^as  of  red  cement,  with  bits  of  white 
marble  imbedded  in  it. 

The  altar  in  the  atrium  and  the  little  oratory  in  the  left- 
hand  ala  belong  to  the  worship  of  the  Lares  domestici  or 
farailiares,  as  is  indicated  by  the  paintings  found  in  the 
false  doorway,  but  now  removed.  They  consisted  of  a  ser- 
pent below  and  a  group  of  four  figures  above,  employed  in  cele- 
brating a  sacrifice  to  these  gods.  In  the  centre  is  a  tripod, 
into  which  a  priest,  his  head  covered,  is  pouring  the  contents 
of  a  patera.  On  each  side  are  two  young  men,  dressed  alike, 
apparently  in  the  praetexta  ;  at  least  their  robes  are  white, 
and  there  is  a  double  red  stripe  down  the  front  of  their 
tunics,  and  a  red  drapery  is  thrown  over  the  shoulders  of 
each.  In  one  hand  each  holds  a  patera  ;  in  the  other  each 
holds  aloft  a  cow's  horn  perforated  ct  the  small  end,  through 
which  a  stream  is  spouting  into  the  patera  at  a  considerable 
distance.  This,  though  an  inconvenient,  seems  to  have  been 
a  common  drinking-vessel.  The  method  of  using  it  has 
already  been  described.  In  the  background  is  a  man  play- 
ing on  the  double  fiute. 

The  worship  of  the  Lares  was  thus  publicly  represented, 


HOUSES  OF  PANSA  AND  SALLUST. 


333 


and  tlieir  images  were  exposed  to  view,  that  all  persons 
miglit  have  an  opportunity  of  saluting  them  and  invoking 
prosperity  on  the  house.  Noble  families  had  also  a  place  of 
domestic  worship  (adytum  or penetr ale)  in  the  most  retired 
part  of  their  mansions,  where  their  most  valuable  records 
and  hereditary  memorials  were  preserved.  The  worship  of 
these  little  deities  (Dii  minuti,  or  patellarii)*  was  universally 
popular,  partly  perhaps  on  account  of  its  economical  nature,| 
for  they  seem  to  have  been  satisfied  with  anything  that  came 
to  hand,  j)ai'tly  perhaps  from  a  sort  of  feeling  of  good  fellow- 
ship in  them  and  towards  them,  like  that  connected  with  the 
Brownies  and  Cluricaunes,  and  other  household  goblins  of 
northern  extraction.  Like  those  goblins  they  were  repre- 
sented sometimes  under  very  grotesque  forms.  There  is  a 
bronze  figure  of  one  found  at  Herculaneum,  and  figui'ed  in 
the  Antiquites  d  Herculanum,  plate  xvii.  vol.  viii.,  which 
represents  a  little  old  man  sitting  on  the  ground  with  his 
knees  u])  to  his  chin,  a  huge  head,  ass's  ears,  a  long  beard, 
and  a  roguish  face,  which  would  not  agree  ill  with  our  notion 
of  a  Brownie.  Their  statues  were  often  placed  behind  the 
door,  as  having  power  to  keep  out  all  things  hurtful,  espe- 
cially evil  genii.  Kespected  as  they  were,  they  sometimes 
met  with  rough  treatment,  and  were  kicked  or  cuffed,  or 
thrown  out  of  window  without  ceremony,  if  any  unlucky 
accident  had  chanced  through  their  neglect.  Sometimes 
they  were  imaged  under  the  form  of  dogs,  the  emblems  of 
fidelity  and  watchfulness,  sometimes,  like  their  brethren  of 
the  highways  (Lares  compitales),  in  the  shape  of  serpents. 
The  tutelary  genii  of  men  or  places,  a  class  of  beings  closely 
allied  to  Lares,  were  supposed  to  manifest  themselves  in  the 
same  shape :  as,  for  example,  a  sacred  serpent  was  believed 
at  Athens  to  keep  watch  in  the  temj)le  of  Athene  in  the 
Acropolis.  Hence  paintings  of  these  animals  became  in 
some  sort  the  guardians  of  the  spot  in  which  they  were  set 
up,  like  images  of  saints  in  Eoman  Catholic  countries,  and 

*  Dii  patellarii,  idem  ac  Lares ;  sic  vocati,  quia  non  a  potu  modo  in  locum, 
qui  Larium  sedes,  aliquid  lis  veteres  defundereiit,  sed  ex  cibis  quoque  in  paleila 
aliquid  ad  focum  deferrent. — Schol.  in  Pers.  iii.  26. 

Opoitet  bonum  civem  legibus  parere  et  deos  colere,  in  patella  dare  fUKphv 
fp€a«j,  i.e.  parum  caniis. — Varr.  apud  Non.  15,  6,  Facciolati. 
f  0  parvi,  nostrique  Lares,  quos  thure  minute 
Aut  farre,  et  tenui  soleo  exorare  corona. — Juv.  ix.  137. 


334 


POMPEII. 


not  unfrequently  were  employed  when  it  was  wished  to 
secure  any  place  from  irreverent  treatment.*  From  these 
associations  the  presence  of  serpents  came  to  be  considered 
of  good  omen,  and  by  a  natural  consequence  they  were  kept 
(a  harmless  sort  of  course)  in  the  houses,  where  they  nestled 
about  the  altars,  and  came  out  like  dogs  or  cats  to  be  patted 
by  the  visitors,  and  beg  for  something  to  eat.f  Nay,  at  table, 
if  we  may  build  upon  insulated  passages,  they  crept  about  the 
cups  of  the  guests  ;  and  in  hot  weather  ladies  would  use  them 
as  live  boas,  and  twist  them  round  their  necks  for  the  sake  of 
coolness.  J  Martial,  however,  our  authority  for  this,  seems 
to  consider  it  as  an  odd  taste.  §  Virgil,  therefore,  in  a  fine 
passage,  in  which  he  has  availed  himself  of  the  divine  nature 
attributed  to  serpents,  is  only  describing  a  scene  which  he 
may  often  have  witnessed  : — 

Scarce  had  he  finished,  when  with  speckled  pride, 

A  serpent  from  the  tomb  began  to  glide  ; 

His  hugy  bulk  on  seven  high  volumes  rolled  ; 

Blue  was  his  breadth  of  back,  but  streaked  with  scaly  gold : 

Thus,  riding  on  his  curls,  he  seemed  to  pass 

A  rolling  fire  along,  and  singe  the  grass. 

More  various  colours  through  his  body  run, 

Than  Iris,  when  her  bow  imbibes  the  sun. 

Betwixt  the  rising  altars,  and  around, 

The  rolling  monster  shot  along  the  ground. 

With  harmless  play  amidst  the  bowls  he  passed, 

And  with  his  lolling  tongue  assayed  the  taste  : 

Thus  fed  with  holy  food,  the  wondrous  guest 

Within  the  hollow  tomb  retired  to  rest. 

The  pious  prince,  surprised  at  what  he  viewed, 

The  funeral  honours  with  moie  zeal  renewed  ; 

Doubtful  if  this  the  place's  genius  were, 

Or  guardian  of  his  father's  sepulchre. || 

We  may  conjecture  from  the  paintings,  which  bear  a 
marked  resemblance  to  one  another,  that  these  snakes  were  of 
considerable  size,  and  of  the  same  species,  probably  that 

*  Pinge  duos  angues :  pueri,  sacer  est  locus — extra 
Meiite.— Pers.  i.  113. 
t  Erat  ei  (Tiberio)  in  oblectamentis  serpens  draco,  quern  e  consuetudine 
manu  sua  cibaturus,  cum  consumptum  a  formicis  invenisset,  monitus  est  ut 
vim  multitudinis  timeret. — Suet.  Tib.  x.  72. 

J  Kepentes  inter  pocula  sinusque  innoxio  lapsu  dracones. — Seneca  (]e  Ira.  ii. 
31. 

§  Si  geiidum  nectit  collo  Glacilla  draconem. — Mart.  vii.  87. 
y  Dryden. — ^En.  v.  84,  ^5. 


HOUSES  OF  PANSA  AND  SALLUST. 


335 


called  iEsculapius,  which  was  brought  from  Epidaurus  to 
Eome  with  the  worship  of  the  god,  and,  as  we  are  told  by 
Pliny,  was  commonly  fed  in  the  houses  of  Eome.  These 
sacred  animals  made  war  on  the  rats  and  mice,  and  thus  kept 
down  one  species  of  vermin  ;  but  as  they  bore  a  charmed  life, 
and  no  one  laid  violent  hands  on  them,  they  multiplied  so 
fast,  that,  like  the  monkeys  of  Benares,  they  became  an  in- 
tolerable nuisance.  The  frequent  fires  at  Eome  were  the  only 
things  that  kept  them  under.  * 

Passing  through  the  tablinum,  we  enter  the  portico  of  the 
xystus,  or  garden,  a  spot  small  in  extent,  but  full  of  ornament 
and  of  beauty,  though  not  that  sort  of  beauty  which  the 
notion  of  a  garden  suggests  to  us.  It  is  not  larger  than  a 
London  garden,  the  object  of  our  continual  ridicule  ;  yet 
while  the  latter  is  ornamented  only  with  one  or  two  scraggy 
poplars,  and  a  few  gooseberry-bushes  with  many  more  thorns 
than  leaves,  the  former  is  elegantly  decorated  by  the  hand  of 
art,  and  set  apart  as  the  favourite  retreat  of  festive  pleasure. 
True  it  is  that  the  climate  of  Italy  suits  out-of-door  amuse- 
ments better  than  our  own,  and  that  Pompeii  was  not  exposed 
to  that  plague  of  soot  which  soon  turns  marble  goddesses 
into  chimney-sweepers.  The  portico  is  composed  of  columns, 
fluted  and  corded,  the  lower  portion  of  them  painted  blue, 
without  pedestals,  yet  approaching  to  the  Eoman  rather  than 
to  the  Grecian  Doric.  The  entablature  is  gone.  From  the 
portico  we  ascend  by  three  steps  to  the  xystus.  Its  small 
extent,  not  exceeding  in  its  greatest  dimensions  seventy 
feet  by  twenty,  did  not  permit  trees,  hardly  even  shrubs,  to 
be  planted  in  it.  The  centre,  therefore,  was  occupied  by  a 
pavement,  and  on  each  side  boxes  filled  with  earth  were 
ranged  for  flowers ;  while,  to  make  amends  for  the  want  of 
real  verdure,  the  whole  wall  opposite  the  portico  is  jiainted 
with  trellises  and  fountains,  and  birds  drinking  from  them  ; 
and  above,  with  thickets  enriched  and  ornamented  wit 
numerous  tribes  of  their  winged  inhabitants. 

The  most  interesting  discoveries  at  Pompeii  are  those 
which  throw  light  on,  or  confirm  passages  of  ancient  authors. 

*  Anguis  .f^sculapius  Epidauro  Komam  advectus  est,  viilgoq.  pascitur  et  in 
domibus.  Ac  nisi  incendiis  semina  exureientur,  non  esset  loecunditati  eorum 
resistere. — Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxix.  22.  rpiiny  seems  to  allude  to  tires  pur- 
posely kindled  to  destroy  their  eggs."] 


336 


POMPEII. 


Exactly  the  same  style  of  ornament  is  described  by  Pliny  the 
Younger  as  existing  in  his  Tuscan  villa.  Another  cubiculum 
is  adorned  with  scul^jtured  marble  for  the  height  of  the 
podium  ;  above  which  is  a  painting  of  trees,  and  birds  sitting 
on  them,  not  inferior  in  elegance  to  the  marble  itself.  Under 
it  is  a  small  fountain,  and  in  the  fountain  a  cup,  round  which 
the  playing  of  several  small  water-pi^^es  makes  a  most  agree- 
able murmur."*  At  the  end  of  this  branch  of  the  garden, 
which  is  shaped  like  an  L,  we  see  an  interesting  monument 
of  the  customs  of  private  life.    It  is  a  summer  triclinium,  in 


Summer  Triclinium  in  the  small  Garden  of  the  House  of  Sallust. 


plan  like  that  which  has  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  but  much  more  elegantly  decorated.  The  couches 
are  of  masonry,  intended  to  be  covered  with  mattresses  and 
rich  tapestry  w^hen  the  feast  was  to  be  held  here  :  the  round 
table  in  the  centre  was  of  marble.  Above  it  was  a  trellis,  as 
is  shown  by  the  square  pillars  in  front  and  the  holes  in  the 


PHn.  Ep.  lib.  v.  6. 


* 


HOUSES  OF  PANS  A  AND  SALLUST. 


337 


walls  wliich  enclose  two  sides  of  the  triclinium.  These  walls 
are  elegantly  painted  in  panels,  in  the  prevailing  taste ;  but 
above  tlie  panelling  there  is  a  whimsical  frieze,  appropriate  to 
the  purpose  of  this  little  pavilion,  consisting-  of  all  sorts  of 
eatables  which  can  be  introduced  at  a  feast.  When  Mazois 
fii-st  saw  it  the  colours  were  fresh  and  beautiful ;  but  when 
he  wrote,  after  a  lapse  of  ten  years,  it  was  already  in  decay, 
and  ere  now  it  has  probably  disappeared,  so  perishable  are 
all  those  beauties  which  cannot  be  protected  from  the  in- 
clemency of  the  weather  by  removal.  In  front  a  stream  of 
water  pours  into  a  basin  from  the  wall,  on  which,  half  painted, 
half  raised  in  relief,  is  a  mimic  fountain  surmounted  by  a 
stag.  Between  the  fountain  and  triclinium,  in  a  line  between 
the  two  pilasters  which  supported  the  trellis,  w^as  a  small 
altar,  on  which  the  due  libations  might  be  poured  by  the 
festive  party.  In  the  other  limb  of  the  garden  is  a  small 
furnace,  probably  intended  to  keep  water  constantly  hot  for 
the  use  of  those  who  preferred  warm  potations.  Usually  the 
Komans  drank  their  wine  mixed  with  snow,  and  clarified 
through  a  strainer,  of  which  there  are  many  in  the  Museum 
of  Naples,  curiously  pierced  in  intricate  patterns ;  but  those 
who  were  under  medical  care  were  not  always  suffered  to 
enjoy  this  luxury.  Martial  laments  his  being  condemned  by 
his  physician  to  drink  no  cold  wine,  and  concludes  with 
wishing  that  his  enviers  may  have  nothing  but  warm  water.* 
At  the  other  end  of  the  garden,  opposite  the  front  of  the 
triclinium,  was  a  cistern  which  collected  the  rain  waters, 
whence  they  were  drawn  for  the  use  of  the  garden  and  of  the 
house.  There  was  also  a  cistern  at  the  end  of  the  portico 
next  the  triclinium. 

The  several  rooms  to  the  left  of  the  atrium  offer  nothing 
remarkable.  On  the  right,  however,  as  will  be  evident  upon 
inspecting  the  plan,  a  suite  of  apartments  existed,  carefully 
detached  from  the  remainder  of  the  house,  and  communicat- 
ing only  with  the  atrium  by  a  single  passage.  The  disposi- 
tion and  the  ornaments  of  this  portion  of  the  house  prove  that 
it  was  a  private  veneremijf  a  place,  if  not  consecrated  to  the 

*  vi.  86. 

t  The  author  here  considers  that  all  this  left  side  of  the  house  was  devoted 
to  venereal  orgies.  But,  as  Overbeck  remarks  (B.  i.  S.  280),  these  apartments 
seem  only  to  be  destined  for  the  private  use  of  the  fnmily,  which,  from  the 

Z 


338 


POMPEII. 


goddess  from  whom  it  derives  its  name,  at  least  especially 
devoted  to  her  service.  The  strictest  privacy  has  been  studied 
in  its  arrangements ;  no  building  overlooks  it ;  the  only  en- 
trance is  closed  by  two  doors,  botli  of  which,  we  may  conjec- 
ture, were  never  suffered  to  be  open  at  once ;  and  beside  them 
was  the  apartment  of  a  slave,  whoso  duty  w^as  to  act  as  porter 
and  prevent  intrusion.  Passing  the  seeond  door,  the  visitor 
found  himself  under  a  portico  supported  by  octagonal  columns, 
with  a  court  or  open  area  in  the  centre,  and  in  the  middle  of 
it  a  small  basin.  At  each  end  of  the  portico  is  a  small 
cabinet,  with  appropriate  paintings  :  in  one  of  them  a  painting 
of  Venus,  Mars,  and  Cupid  is  conspicuous.  The  apartments 
were  paved  with  marble,  and  the  walls  lined  breast-high  with 
the  same  material.  A  niche  in  the  cabinet  nearest  the  tricli- 
nium contained  a  small  image,  a  gold  vase,  a  gold  coin,  and 
twelve  bronze  medals  of  the  reign  of  Vespasian ;  and  near 
this  spot  were  found  eight  small  bronze  columns,  which  ap- 
pear to  have  formed  part  of  a  bed.  In  the  adjoining  lane 
four  skeletons  were  found,  apparently  a  female  attended  by 
three  slaves ;  the  tenant  perhaps  of  this  elegant  apartment. 
Beside  her  was  a  round  plate  of  silver,  which  probably  was  a 
mirror,  together  with  several  golden  rings  set  with  engraved 
stones,  two  earrings,  and  five  bracelets  of  the  same  metal. 
Both  cabinets  had  glazed  windows,*  which  commanded  a 
view  of  the  court  and  of  each  other :  it  is  conjectured  that 
they  were  provided  with  curtains.  The  court  itself  presents 
no  trace  of  pavement,  and  therefore  probably  served  as  a 
garden.    The  opposite  page  contains  a  view  of  the  interior, 


nature  of  the  area  on  which  the  house  was  built,  as  shown  by  the  ground  plan, 
could  not  be  constructed  in  their  usual  situation  round  the  peristyle,  which  is 
here  altogether  wanting.  The  argument  from  the  pictures  he  justly  regards 
as  futile,  since  these  are  not  a  whit  more  indecent  than  many  which  may  be 
seen  in  parts  of  Pompeian  houses  that  certainly  were  not  Veneria.  We 
cannot  however  agree  with  Overbeck  in  altogether  banishing  Veiieria  from 
Pompeii,  to  whatev^er  purpose  such  apartments  may  have  been  applied,  since 
they  are  mentioned  in  the  advertisement  of  Julia  Felix  already  mentioned.  (In 
praedis  Julias  Felicis  locantur  Balneum,  Venerium,  et  Nongentum  Tabernae.— 
Pomp.  Ant.  Hist.  t.  i.  fasc.  ii.  p.  95.)  But  as  the  same  advertisement,  ac- 
cording to  the  generally  received  interpretation,  forbids  any  brothel-keeper  to 
apply,  it  seems  fair  to  presume  that  they  were  not  used  for  profligate 
purposes. — Ed. 

*  Mazois,  part  ii.  p.  77. 


340 


POMPEII. 


as  restored  by  Mazois.  The  ground  of  the  Walls  is  black,  a 
colour  well  calculated  to  set  off  doubtful  complexions  to  the 
best  advantage,  while  its  sombre  aspect  is  redeemed  by  a  pro- 
fusion of  gold-coloured  ornament,  in  the  most  elegant  taste. 
The  columns  were  painted  with  the  colour  called  sinopis 
Ponticum^  a  species  of  red  ochre  of  brilliant  tint.  Nearly  all 
the  wall  of  the  court  between  the  cabinets  is  occupied  by  a 
large  painting  of  Actaeon,  from  w^hich  the  house  derives  one 
of  its  names  :  on  either  side  it  is  flanked  by  the  representa- 
tion of  a  statue  on  a  high  pedestal.  The  centre  piece  com- 
prises a  double  action.  In  one  part  we  see  a  rocky  grotto, 
in  which  Diana  was  bathing  when  the  unwary  hunter  made 
his  appearance  above  :  in  the  other  he  is  torn  by  his  own 
dogs,  a  severe  punishment  for  an  unintentional  intrusion. 
The  background  represents  a  wild  and  mountainous  land- 
scape. A  painted  frieze,  and  other  paintings  on  the  walls, 
complete  the  decorations  of  the  portico. 

The  large  apartment,  35,  was  a  triclinium  for  the  use  of 
this  portion  of  the  house,  where  the  place  of  the  table,  and  of 
the  beds  wdiich  surrounded  it  on  three  sides,  was  marked  by 
a  mosaic  pavement.  Over  the  left-hand  portico  there  w^as  a 
terrace.  The  space  marked  36  contained  the  stair  which 
gave  access  to  it,  a  stove  connected  probably  with  the  service 
of  the  triclinium  and  other  conveniences. 

This  house  also  has  been  restored  by  Mr.  Dering,  by 
w^hose  permission  the  accompanying  plate  has  been  inserted.* 
In  the  centre  of  the  view  is  seen  the  opening  into  the  tabli- 
num,  wiiich  probably  was  only  separated  from  the  atrium  by 
curtains  (para/petasmata),  which  might  be  drawn  or  undrawn 
at  pleasure.  Through  the  tablinum  the  pillars  of  the  peri- 
style and  the  fountain  painted  on  the  garden  wall  are  seen. 
To  the  right  of  the  tablinum  is  the  fauces,  and  on  each  side 
of  the  atrium  the  alae  are  seen,  partly  shut  off,  like  the  tabli- 
num, by  handsome  draperies.  The  nearer  doors  belong  to 
chambers  which  open  into  the  atrium.  Above  the  coloured 
courses  of  stucco  blocks  the  walls  are  painted  in  the  light, 
almost  Chinese  style  of  architecture,  which  is  so  common,  and 
a  row  of  scenic  masks  fills  the  place  of  a  cornice.  The 

*  The  view,  however,  hardly  conveys  an  adequate  idea  of  the  atrium,  being 
taicen  from  a  point  too  near  the  impluvium.  There  are  three  doors  on  each 
side,  while  in  the  view  only  one  is  shown,  besides  the  ala. — Ed. 


342 


POMPEII. 


ceiling  is  richly  fretted.  The  compluvium  also  was  orna- 
mented with  a  row  of  triangular  tiles  called  antelixes,  on 
w^hich  a  mask  or  some  other  object  was  moulded  in  relief. 
Below,  lions'  heads  are  placed  along  the  cornice  at  intervals, 
forming  spouts  through  which  the  water  was  discharged  into 
the  impluvium  beneath.  Part  of  this  cornice,  found  in  the 
house  of  which  we  speak,  is  well  deserving  our  notice,  because 
it  contains,  within  itself,  specimens  of  three  different  epochs 
of  art,  at  which  we  must  suppose  the  house  was  first  built, 
and  subsequently  repaired.    It  is  made  of  a  fine  clay,  with  a 


Part  of  the  cornice  of  the  Impluvium  of  ihe  Atrium  of  the  House  of  Sallust. 

lion's  head  moulded  upon  it,  w^ell  designed,  and  carefully 
finished.  It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  it  w^as  not  meant  to  be 
stuccoed,  or  the  labour  bestowed  in  its  execution  would  have 
been  in  great  part  wasted.  At  a  later  period  it  has  been 
coated  over  with  the  finest  stucco,  and  additional  enrichments 
and  mouldings  have  been  introduced,  yet  without  injury  to 
the  design  or  inferiority  in  the  workmanship  ;  indicating 
that  at  the  time  of  its  execution  the  original  simplicity  of  art 
had  given  w^ay  to  a  more  enriched  and  elaborate  style  of 
ornament,  yet  without  any  perceptible  decay,  either  in  the 
taste  of  the  designer  or  the  skill  of  the  workman.   Still  later 


A 


HOUSES  OF  PANSA  AND  SALLUST. 


343 


this  elegant  stucco  cornice  had  been  covered  with  a  third 
coating  of  the  coarsest  materials,  and  of  design  and  execution 
most  barbarous,  when  it  is  considered  how  line  a  model  the 
artists  had  before  their  eyes.  In  the  annexed  section  the 
three  periods  are  distinguished  by  different  shades.  The 
original  cornice  is  the  darker,  marked  A ;  the  second  coating 
is  left  white ;  the  third  and  last  is  faintly  shaded.  This  wfis 
painted,  which  neither  of  the  two  earlier  cornices  ap2)ear  to 
have  been.  In  the  restoration,  the  impluvium  is  surrounded 
with  a  mosaic  border.  This  has  disappeared,  if  ever  there 
was  one  ;  but  mosaics  are  frequently  found  in  this  situation, 
and  it  is  therefore  at  all  events  an  allowable  liberty  to 
place  one  here,  in  a  house  so  distinguished  for  the  richness 
and  elegance  of  its  decorations.  Beside  the  impluvium  stood 
a  machine,  now  in  the  National  Museum,  for  heating  water, 
and  at  the  same  time  warming  the  room  if  requisite.  The 
high  circular  part,  wdth  the  lid  open,  is  a  reservoir,  commu- 
nicating with  the  semicircular  piece,  which  is  hollow,  and 
had  a  spout  to  discharge  the  lieated  water.  The  three  eagles 
placed  on  it  are  meant  to  support  a  kettle.  The  charcoal 
was  contained  in  the  square  base. 


PaintiDg  representing  the  raarner  of  hanging  a  Picture  against  the  walL 


3U 


POMPEII. 


Curule  Seat. 


CHAPTEK  V. 

THE  VIA  CONSULARIS,  OR  DOmTIANA. 

In  the  preceding  chapters  we  have  taken  indiscriminately, 
from  all  quarters  of  the  town,  houses  of  all  classes,  from  the 
smallest  to  the  most  splendid,  in  the  belief  that  such  would 
be  the  best  way  of  showing  the  gradations  of  wealth  and 
comfort,  the  different  styles  of  dwelling  adopted  by  different 
classes  of  citizens,  in  proportion  to  their  means.  It  would 
however  be  manifestly  impossible  so  to  classify  all  the 
houses  which  contain  something  worthy  of  description  ;  and 
we  shall  therefore  adopt  a  topographical  arrangement  as  the 
simplest  one,  commencing  at  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum,  and 
proceeding  in  as  regular  order  as  circumstances  will  permit 
through  the  excavated  part  of  the  town,  concluding  at  t"i3 
quarter  of  the  Theatres,  beyond  which  there  is  nothing  exca- 
vated except  the  amphitheatre. 

Most  of  the  houses  immediately  about  the  gate  appear  to 
have  been  small  inns  or  eating-houses,  probably  used  chiefly 
by  country  people,  who  came  in  to  market,  or  by  the  lower 
order  of  travellers.  Immediately  to  the  right  of  it,  however, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  street  called  the  Via  Consularis,  or 
Domitiana,  there  is  a  dwelling  of  a  better  class,  called  the 
House  of  the  Musician,*  from  paintings  of  musical  instru- 
ments which  ornamented  the  walls.  Among  these  were  the 
sistrum,  trumpet,  double  flute,  and  others.    Upon  the  right 

*  Now  known  as  the  shop  or  inn  of  Albino. 


THE  VIA  CONSULARIS,  OR  DOMITIANA.  345 


side  of  the  street,  however,  the  buildings  soon  improve,  and 
in  that  quarter  are  situated  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
mansions,  in  respect  of  extent  and  construction,  which 
Pompeii  affords.  They  stand  in  part  upon  the  site  of  the 
walls  which  have  been  demolished  upon  this,  the  side  next 
the  port,  for  what  purpose  it  is  not  very  easy  to  say :  not  to 
make  room  for  the  growth  of  the  city,  for  these  houses  stand 
at  the  very  limit  of  the  available  ground,  being  partly  built 
upon  a  steep  rock.  Hence,  besides ,  the  upper  floors,  which 
have  perished,  they  consist  each  of  two  or  three  stories,  one 
below  another,  so  that  the  apartments  next  the  street  are 
always  on  the  highest  level.  Those  who  are  familiar  with  the 
metropolis  of  Scotland  will  readily  call  to  mind  a  similar 
mode  of  construction  very  observable  on  the  north  side  of  the 
High  Street,  where  the  ground-floor  is  sometimes  situated 
about  the  middle  of  the  house. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  houses  contains  three 
stories ;  the  first,  level  with  the  street,  contains  the  public 
part  of  the  house,  the  vestibule,  atrium,  and  tablinum,  which 
opens  upon  a  spacious  terrace.  Beside  these  is  the  peristyle 
and  other  private  apartments,  at  the  back  of  which  the  terrace 
of  which  we  have  just  spoken  offers  an  agreeable  walk  for  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  house,  and  forms  the  roof  of  a  spacious 
set  of  apartments  at  a  lower  level,  which  are  accessible  either 
by  a  sloping  passage  from  the  street,  running  under  the 
atrium,  or  by  a  staircase  communicating  with  the  peristyle. 
This  floor  contains  baths,  a  triclinium,  a  spacious  saloon,  and 
other  rooms  necessary  for  the  private  use  of  a  family.  Be- 
hind these  rooms  is  another  terrace,  which  overlooks  a 
spacious  court  surrounded  by  porticoes,  and  containing  a 
piscina  or  reservoir  in  the  centre.  The  pillars  on  the  side 
next  the  house  are  somewhat  higher  than  on  the  other  tliree 
sides,  so  as  to  give  the  terrace  there  a  greater  elevation. 
Below  this  second  story  there  is  yet  a  third,  in  part  under 
ground,  which  contains  another  set  of  baths,  and,  besides 
apartments  for  other  pm-poses,  the  lodging  of  the  slaves. 
This  was  divided  into  little  cells,  scarcely  the  length  of  a 
man,  dark  and  damp  ;  and  we  cannot  enter  it  without  a  lively 
feeling  of  the  wetched  state  to  which  these  beings  were 
reduced. 

A  few  steps  further,  on  the  same  side,  is  another  house 


346 


POMPEII. 


somewhat  of  the  same  description,  which  evidently  belonged 
to  some  man  of  importance,  probably  to  Julius  Polybius, 
whose  name  has  been  found  in  several  inscriptions.  Frag- 
ments of  richly-gilt  stucco-work  enable  us  to  estimate  the 
richness  of  its  decoration  and  the  probable  wealth  of  its 
owner.  It  will  be  readily  distinguished  by  its  immense 
Corinthian  atrium,  or  rather  peristyle.  It  has  the  further 
peculiarity  of  having  two  vestibules,  each  communicating 
with  the  street  and  with  the  atrium.  The  portico  of  the 
atrium  is  formed  by  arcades  and  piers,  ornamented  with 
attached  columns,  the  centre  being  occupied  by  a  coui't  and 
fountain.  These  arcades  appear  to  have  been  enclosed  by 
windows.  Square  holes,  worked  in  the  marble  coping  of  a 
dwarf  wall  which  surrounds  the  little  court,  were  perfectly 
distinguishable,*  and  it  is  concluded  that  they  were  meant  to 
receive  the  window-frames.  Pliny  the  Younger  describes  a 
similar  glazed  portico  at  his  Laurentine  villa  ;  and  an  antique 
painting,  representing  the  baths  of  Faustina,  gives  the  view 
of  a  ]3ortico,  the  apertures  of  which  are  entirely  glazed,  as 
we  suppose  them  to  have  been  here.  The  portico,  and  three 
apartments  which  communicate  with  it,  were  paved  in  mosaic. 
Attached  to  one  of  the  corner  piers  there  is  a  fountain.  The 
kitchen  and  other  apartments  were  below  this  floor.  There 
was  also  an  upper  story,  as  is  clear  from  the  remains  of  stair- 
cases. This  house  extends  to  the  point  at  which  a  by- street 
turns  away  from  the  main  road  to  the  Forum.  We  will  now 
return  to  the  gate,  to  describe  the  triangular  island  of  houses 
which  bounds  the  main  street  on  the  eastern  side. 

That  close  to  the  gate,  called  the  House  of  the  Triclinium, 
derives  its  name  from  a  large  triclinium  in  the  centre  of  the 
peristyle,  which  is  spacious  and  handsome,  and  bounded  by 
the  city  walls.  The  House  of  the  Vestals  is  a  little  further 
on.  What  claim  it  has  to  this  title,  except  by  the  rule 
of  contraries,  we  are  at  a  loss  to  guess  ;  seeing  that  the  style 
of  its  decorations  is  very  far  from  corresponding  with  that 
purity  of  thought  and  manners  which  we  are  accustomed  to 
associate  with  the  title  of  vestal.  The  paintings  are  nu- 
merous and  beautiful,  and  the  mosaics  remarkably  fine.  Upon 
the  threshold  here,  as  in  several  other  houses,  we  find  the 


*  Mazois,  part  ii.  p.  52, 


THE  VIA  CONSULARIS,  OR  DOMITIANA. 


347 


word  "  Salve  "  (Welcome),  worked  in  mosaic.  We  enter  by  a 
vestibule,  divided  into  three  compartments,  and  ornamented 
with  four  attached  columns,  which  introduces  us  to  an  atrium, 
fitted  up  in  the  usual  manner,  and  surrounded  by  the  usual 
apartments.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  is  a  triclinium, 
which  formerly  was  richly  paved  with  glass  mosaics.  Hence 
we  pass  into  the  private  apartments,  which  are  thus  described 
by  Bonucci  : — "  This  house  seems  to  have  been  originally 
two  separate  houses,  afterwards,  probably,  bought  by  some 
rich  man,  and  thrown  into  one.  After  traversing  a  little 
court,  around  which  are  the  sleeping  chambers,  and  that 
destined  to  business,  we  hastened  to  render  our  visit  to  the 
Penates.  Wo  entered  the  pantry,  and  rendered  back  to  the 
proprietors  the  greeting  that,  from  the  threshold  of  this  man- 
sion, they  still  direct  to  strangers.  We  next  passed  through 
the  kitchen  and  its  dependencies.  The  corn-mills  seemed 
waiting  for  the  accustomed  hands  to  grind  with  them,  after 
so  many  years  of  repose.  Oil  standing  in  glass  vessels, 
chesnuts,  dates,  raisins,  and  figs,  in  the  next  chamber,  an- 
nounce the  provision  for  the  approaching  winter,  and  large 
amphorae  of  wine  recall  to  us  the  consulates  of  Caesar  and  of 
Cicero. 

"  We  entered  the  private  apartment.  Magnificent  porticoes 
are  to  be  seen  around  it.  Numerous  beautiful  columns 
covered  with  stucco,  and  with  very  fresh  colours,  surrounded 
a  very  agreeable  garden,  a  pond,  and  a  bath.  Elegant 
paintings,  delicate  ornaments,  stags,  sphinxes,  wild  and 
fanciful  flowers  everywhere  cover  the  walls.  The  cabinets 
of  young  girls,  and  their  toilets,  with  appropriate  paintings, 
are  disposed  along  the  sides.  In  this  last  were  found  a  great 
quantity  of  female  ornaments,  and  the  skeleton  of  a  little 
dog.  At  the  extremity  is  seen  a  semicircular  room  adorned 
with  niches,  and  formerly  with  statues,  mosaics,  and  marbles. 
An  altar,  on  which  the  sacred  fire  burned  perpetually,  rose 
in  the  centre.  This  is  the  sacrarium.  In  this  secret  and 
sacred  place  the  most  solemn  and  memorable  days  of  the 
family  wei^e  spent  in  rejoicing ;  and  here,  on  birthdays, 
sacrifices  were  oftered  to  Juno,  or  the  Genius,  the  protector 
of  the  new-born  child."* 

*  Not  having  been  able  to  procure  Bonucci's  work,  we  quote  from  the  notes 
to  a  little  American  story,  entitled  "  The  Vestal,  a  tale  of  Pompeii," 


348 


POMPEII. 


The  next  house  is  called  tlie  House  of  a  Surgeon,  because 
a  variety  of  surgical  instruments  were  found  in  it.  In  num- 
ber they  amounted  to  forty  :  some  resembled  instruments 
still  in  use,  others  are  different  from  anything  employed  by 
modern  surgeons.  In  many  the  description  of  Celsus  is 
realised,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  specillum,  or  j^robe,  which  is 
concave  on  one  side  and  flat  on  the  other  ;  the  scalper  ex- 
cisorius,  in  the  shape  of  a  lancet-point  on  one  side  and  of  a 
mallet  on  the  other  ;  a  hook  and  force]3S,  used  in  obstetrical 
practice.  The  latter  are  said  to  equal  in  the  convenience 
and  ingenuity  of  their  construction  the  best  efforts  of  modern 
cutlers.  Needles,  cutting  compasses  (circini  excisorii),  and 
other  instruments  were  found,  all  of  the  purest  brass  with 
bronze  handles,  and  usually  enclosed  in  brass  or  boxAvood 
cases.  There  is  nothing  remarkable  in  the  house  itself, 
which  contains  the  usual  apartments,  atrium,  peristyle,  &c., 
except  the  paintings.  These  consist  chiefly  of  architectural 
designs,  combinations  of  golden  and  bronze-coloured  columns 
placed  in  persj^ective,  surmounted  by  rich  architraves,  elabo- 
rate friezes,  and  decorated  cornices,  one  order  above  another. 
Intermixed  are  arabesque  ornaments,  grotesque  paintings, 
and  compartments  with  figures,  all  apparently  employed  in 
domestic  occupations.  Three  of  these  we  have  selected  fcr 
insertion.    One  of  them  represents  a  female  figure  carrying 


rolls  of  papyrus  to  a  man  who  is  seated  and  intently  reading. 
The  method  of  reading  these  rolls  or  volumes,  which  were 
written  in  transverse  columns  across  the  breadth  of  the 


Female  Figure  with  Papyri. 


THE  VIA  CONSULARIS,  OR  DOMITIANA. 


349 


papyrus,  is  clearly  shown  here.  Behind  him  a  young  woman 
is  seated,  playing  on  the  harp.  All  these  figures  are  placed 
under  the  light  architectural  designs  above  described,  which 
seem  intended  to  surmount  a  terrace.  It  is  a  common  prac- 
tice at  the  present  day  in  Italy,  especially  near  Naples,  to 


construct  light  treillages  on  the  tops  of  the  houses,  w^here  the 
inhabitants  enjoy  the  evening  breeze,  al  fresco,  in  the  same 
way  as  is  represented  in  these  paintings.  The  peristyle  is 
small,  but  in  good  preservation.  Its  intercolumniations  are 
filled  up  by  a  dwarf  wall  painted  red,  the  lower  part  of 
the  columns  being  painted  blue.  This  house  runs  through 
the  island  from  one  street  to  the  other.  Adjoining  it,  on  the 
south,  is  the  custom-house,  telonium.  Here  a  wide  entrance 
admits  us  into  an  ample  chamber,  where  many  scales  were 
found,  and  among  them  a  steelyard,  statera,  much  resembling 
those  now  in  use,  but  more  richly  and  tastefully  ornamented. 
A  description  of  similar  implements  has  been  given  in  the 
first  part,  pp.  76,  77.  Many  weights  of  lead  and  marble 
were  found  here  ;  one  w^ith  the  inscription,  "  Eme  et  habebis  " 
(Buy  and  you  shall  have).*    Near  the  custom-house  is  a 

*  There  is  no  trnre  of  tliese  weights  and  scales  in  the  journals  of  the  exca- 
vations, though  weights  like  those  described  have  been  found  elsewhere.  It 
should  have  been  added  that,  behind  the  apartment  described,  is  another  quite 
as  largo,  having  its  principal  entrance  from  the  little  street  or  lane  at  the  back, 
called  Vicolo  di  Narcisso.  This  has  all  the  appearance  of  a  stable;  and  the 
discovery  in  it  of  the  skeletons  of  two  horses,  and  some  remains  of  a  two- 


Figure  playing  on  the  Harp. 


i"  igure  reading  a  roll  of  Papyrus. 


350 


POMPEII. 


soap  manufactory.  In  tlie  first  room  were  heaps  of  lime,  tlie 
admirable  quality  of  which  has  excited  the  wonder  of  modern 
plasterers.  In  an  inner  room  are  the  soap-vats,  placed  on  a 
level  with  the  ground.  The  island  is  terminated  by  the 
fountain,  of  which  there  is  a  view  in  Part  I. 

We  now  come  to  the  House  of  Sallust,  or  Actseon.  which 
we  have  abeady  described.  Besides  it,  the  island  contains 
three  houses  which  have  been  distinguished  by  names,  the 
House  of  Isis  and  Osiris,  the  House  of  Narcissus,  and  the 
House  of  the  Female  Dancers.  Of  these  the  latter  is  remark- 
able for  the  beauty  of  the  paintings  which  adorn  its  Tuscan 
atrium.  Among  them  are  four  very  elegant  figures  of  female 
dancers,  from  which  the  name  given  to  the  house  is  taken. 
Another  represents  a  figure  reposing  on  the  border  of  a  clear 
lake,  surrounded  by  villas  and  palaces,  on  the  bosom  of  which 
a  flock  of  ducks  and  wild-fowl  are  swimming.  The  house  of 
Narcissus  is  distinguished  by  the  elegance  of  its  peristyle  ; 
the  intercolumniations  are  filled  up  by  a  dwarf  wall,  which  is 
hollowed  at  the  top,  probably  to  receive  earth  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  select  flowers.  Our  materials  do  not  admit  of  a  fuller 
description  of  the  houses  in  this  quarter. 

Passing  onwards  from  the  House  of  Sallust,  the  next  island 
to  the  south,  separated  from  it  by  a  narrow  lane,  affords 
nothing  remarkable,  except  the  shop  of  a  baker,  to  the  details 
of  which,  in  conjunction  with  the  art  of  dyeing,  we  purpose  to 
devote  a  separate  chapter.  It  is  terminated  in  a  sharp  point 
by  the  fountain  before  mentioned.  The  disposition  of  the 
streets  and  houses  everywhere  is  most  unsymmetrical,  but 
here  it  is  remarkably  so,  even  for  Pompeii.  Just  by  the 
house  with  the  double  vestibule  the  main  street  divides  into 
two,  inclined  to  each  other  at  a  very  acute  angle,  which 
form,  together  with  a  third  cross  street  of  more  importance, 
called  the  Strada  delle  Terme,  or  Street  of  the  Baths, 
another  small  triangular  island.  The  house  at  the  apex 
was  an  apothecary's  shop.  A  great  many  drugs,  glasses, 
and  phials  of  the  most  singular  forms,  were  found  here  : 
in  some  of  the  latter  fluids  were  yet  remaining.    In  par- 


wheeled  cart,  tends  to  confirm  this  view.  Such  an  adjunct  seems  hardly  to 
agree  with  the  idea  that  the  front  building  was  a  custom-house.  See  Over- 
beck,  B.  i.  S.  137.— Ed. 


THE  VIA  CONSULARIS,  OR  DOMITIANA. 


Figure  from  the  House  of  the  Female  Dancers. 


352 


POilPEII. 


ticular  one  large  glass  vase  is  to  be  mentioned,  capable  of 
holding  two  gallons,  in  which  was  a  gallon  and  a  half  of  a 
reddish  liquid,  said  to  be  balsam.  On  being  opened,  the 
contents  began  to  evaporate  very  fast,  and  it  was  therefore 
closed  hermetically.  About  an  inch  in  depth  of  the  contents 
has  been  thus  lost,  leaving  on  the  sides  of  the  vessel  a 
sediment,  reaching  up  to  the  level  to  which  it  was  formerly 
filled.  The  right-hand  street  leads  to  buildings  entii-ely  in 
ruins,  the  left-hand  one,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  Via 
Consularis,  or  Domitiana,  conducts  us  towards  the  Forum. 

Immediately  to  the  eastward  of  the  district  just  described 
is  the  House  of  Pansa,  which  occupies  a  whole  island.  The 
island  between  it  and  the  city  walls,  on  the  north,  offers 
nothing  remarkable.  Beyond,  still  to  the  east,  is  an  island 
separated  from  it  by  a  narrow  street,  called  the  Via  della 
Fullonica,  and  bounded  on  the  other  side  by  the  Street  of 
Mercury,  which  runs  in  a  straight  line  from  the  walls  nearly 
to  the  Forum.  This  island  contains,  besides  several  private 
houses  of  great  beauty,  the  Fullonica,  or  establishment  for 
the  fulling  and  dyeing  of  woollen  cloths.  This,  together  with 
the  bakehouse  above-mentioned,  will  afford  materials  for  a 
separate  chapter. 


Dixnaug  Faun. 


353 


Antique  Bas-relief  in  terra-cotta,  representing  a  I\Iule  attached  to  a  Mill. 

CHAPTEE  VI. 

ART  OF  BAKING. — FULLONICA. 

The  fame  of  an  actor  lias  been  justly  said  to  be  of  all  fame 
the  most  perishable,  because  he  leaves  no  memorial  of  his 
powers,  except  in  the  fading  memories  of  the  generation 
which  has  beheld  him.  An  analogous  proposition  might  be 
made  with  respect  to  the  mechanical  arts  :  of  all  sorts  of 
knowledge  they  are  the  most  perishable,  because  the  know- 
ledge of  them  cannot  be  transmitted  by  mere  description. 
Let  any  great  convulsion  of  nature  put  an  end  to  their 
practice  for  a  generation  or  two,  and  though  the  scientific 
part  of  them  may  be  preserved  in  books,  the  skill  in  manipu- 
lation, acquired  by  a -long  series  of  improvements,  is  lost.  If 
Britain  be  destined  to  relapse  into  such  a  state  of  barbarism 
as  Italy  passed  through  in  the  period  which  divides  ancient 
and  modern  history,  its  inhabitants  a  thousand  years  hence 
will  know  little  more  of  the  manual  processes  of  printing, 
dyeing,  and  the  other  arts  which  minister  to  our  daily  com- 
fort, in  spite  of  all  the  books  which  have  been  and  shall  be 

2  A 


354 


POMPEII. 


written,  man  we  Imow  of  the  manual  processes  of  ancient 
Italy.  We  reckon,  therefore,  among  the  most  interesting 
discoveries  of  Pompeii,  those  which  relate  to  the  manner  of 
conducting  handicrafts,  of  which  it  is  not  too  much  to  say- 
that  we  know  nothing  except  through  this  medium.  It  is  to 
be  regretted,  that  as  far  as  our  information  goes,  there  are 
but  two  trades  on  which  any  light  has  yet  been  thrown,  those, 
namely,  of  the  baker  and  the  dyer.  We  shall  devote  this 
chapter  to  collecting  what  is  known  upon  these  subjects. 

Several  bakers'  shops  have  been  found,  all  in  a  tolerable 
state  of  preservation.  The  mills,  the  oven,  the  kneading- 
troughs,  the  vessels  for  containing  water,  flour,  leaven,  have 
all  been  discovered,  and  seem  to  leave  nothing  wanting  to 
our  knowledge  ;  in  some  of  the  vessels  the  very  flour  re- 
mained, still  capable  of  being  identified,  though  reduced 
almost  to  a  cinder.  But  in  the  centre  some  lumps  of  whitish 
matter  resembling  chalk  remained,  which,  when  wetted  and 
placed  on  a  red-hot  iron,  gave  out  the  peculiar  odour  which 
flour  thus  treated  emits.  Even  the  very  bread,  in  a  perfect 
though  carbonized  form,  has  in  some  instances  been  found  in 
the  oven.  One  of  these  bakers'  shops  was  attached  to  the 
House  of  Sallust,  another  to  the  House  of  Pansa :  probably 
they  were  worth  a  handsome  rent.  A  third,  which  we  select 
for  description,  for  one  will  serve  perfectly  as  a  tyj)e  of  the 
whole,  seems  to  have  belonged  to  a  man  of  higher  class,  a 
sort  of  capitalist ;  for  instead  of  renting  a  mere  dependency 
of  another  man's  house,  he  lived  in  a  tolerably  good  house  of 
his  own,  of  which  the  bakery  forms  a  part.  It  stands  next 
to  the  House  of  Sallust,  on  the  south  side,  being  divided  from 
it  only  by  a  narrow  street.  Its  front  is  in  the  main  street 
or  Yia  Consularis,  leading  from  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum  to 
the  Forum.  Entering  by  a  small  vestibule,  the  visitor  finds 
himself  in  a  tetrastyle  atrium  (a  thing  not  common  at 
Pompeii),  of  ample  dimensions  considering  the  character  of 
the  house,  being  about  thirty-six  feet  by  thirty.  The  pillars 
which  supported  the  ceiling  are  square  ^and  solid,  and  their 
size,  combined  with  indications  observed  in  a  fragment  of  the 
entablature,  led  Mazois  to  suppose  that,  instead  of  a  roof, 
they  had  been  surmounted  by  a  terrace.  The  impluvium  is 
marble.  At  the  end  of  the  atrium  is  what  would  be  called  a 
tablinum  in  the  house  of  a  man  of  family,  through  which  we 


ART  OF  BAKING. 


355 


enter  the  bakehouse,  wliicli  is  at  the  back  of  the  house,  and 
opens  into  the  smaller  street,  which,  diverging  from  the  main 
street  at  the  fountain  by  Pansa  s  house,  runs  up  straight  to 
the  city  walls.  The  atrium  is  surrounded  by  different 
apartments,  offering  abundant  accommodation,  but  such  as  we 
need  not  stop  to  describe. 

The  workroom  is  about  thirty-three  feet  long  by  twenty- 
six.  The  centre  is  occupied  by  four  stone  mills,  exactly 
like  those  found  in  the  other  two  shops,  for  all  the  bakers 
ground  their  own  flour.  To  give  more  room  they  are  placed 
diagonally,  so  as  to  form,  not  a  square,  but  a  lozenge.  Mazois 
was  present  at  the  excavation  of  this  house,  and  saw  the 
mills  at  the  moment  of  their  discovery,  when  the  iron-work, 
though  entirely  rust-eaten,  was  yet  perfect  enough  to  explain 
satisfactorily  the  method  of  construction.  This  will  be  best 
understood  from  the  following  representation,  one  half  ol 
which  is  an  elevation,  the  other  half  a  section. 

The  base  is  a  cylindrical  stone,  about  five  feet  in  diameter 
and  two  feet  high.  Upon  this,  forming  part  of  the  same 
block,  or  else  fii-mly  fixed  into  it,  is  a  conical  projection 
about  two  feet  high,  the  sides  slightly  curving  inwards. 
Upon  this  there  rests  another  block,  externally  resembling  a 
dice-box,  internally  an  hour-glass,  being  shaped  into  two 
hollow  cones  with  their  vertices  towards  each  other,  the 
lower  one  fitting  the  conical  surface  on  wdiich  it  rests,  though 
not  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  To  diminish  friction, 
however,'  a  strong  iron  pivot  was  inserted  in  the  top  of  the 
solid  cone,  and  a  corresponding  socket  let  into  the  narrow 
part  of  the  hour-glass.  Four  holes  were  cut  through  the 
stone  parallel  to  this  pivot.  The  narrow  part  was  hooped  on 
the  outside  with  iron,  into  which  wooden  bars  were  inserted, 
by  means  of  which  the  upper  stone  was  turned  upon  its  pivot, 
by  the  labour  of  men  or  asses.  The  upper  hollow  cone 
served  as  a  hopper,  and  was  filled  with  corn,  which  fell  by 
degrees  through  the  four  holes  upon  the  solid  cone,  and  was 
reduced  to  powder  by  friction  between  the  two  rough  surfaces. 
Of  course  it  worked  its  w^ay  to  the  bottom  by  degrees,  and 
fell  out  on  the  cylindrical  base,  round  which  a  channel  was 
cut  to  facilitate  the  collection.  These  machines  are  about 
six  feet  high  in  the  whole,  made  of  a  rough  grey  volcanic 
stone,  full  of  large  crystals  of  leu  cite.    Thus  rude,  in  a 


356 


POMPEII. 


period  of  high  refinement  and  luxury,  was  one  of  the  com- 
monest and  most  necessary  machines — thus  careless  were  the 
Eomans  of  the  amount  of  labour  wasted  in  preparing  an 
article  of  daily  and  universal  consumption.  This,  probably, 
arose  in  chief  from  the  employment  of  slaves,  the  hardness  of 
whose  task  was  little  cared  for ;  while  the  profit  and  en- 
couragement to  enterprise  on  the  part  of  the  professional 


Section  of  the  MiU. 

baker  was  proportionately  diminished,  since  every  family  of 
wealth  probably  prepared  its  bread  at  home.  But  the  same 
inattention  to  the  useful  arts  runs  through  everything  that 
they  did.  Their  skill  in  working  metals  was  equal  to  oui'S  ; 
nothing  can  be  more  beautiful  than  the  execution  of  tripods, 
lamps,  and  vases,  nothing  coarser  than  their  locks ;  while  at 
the  same  time  the  door-handles,  bolts,  &c.,  which  were  seen, 
are  often  exquisitely  wi^ought.    To  what  cause  can  this 


ART  OF  BAKING. 


357 


sluggishness  be  referred  ?  In  England  we  see  that  a  material 
improvement  in  any  article,  though  so  trifling  as  a  corkscrew 
or  pencil-case,  is  pretty  sure  to  make  the  fortune  of  some 
man,  though  unfortunately  that  man  is  very  often  not  the 
inventor.  Had  the  encouragement  to  industry  been  the 
same,  the  result  would  have  been  the  same.  Articles  of 
luxury  were  in  high  request,  and  of  them  the  supply  was 
first-rate.  But  the  demands  of  a  luxurious  nobility  would 
never  have  repaid  any  man  for  devoting  his  attention  to  the 
improvement  of  mills  or  perfecting  smith's  work,  and  there 
was  little  general  commerce  to  set  ingenuity  at  work.  Italy 
imported  largely  both  agricultural  produce  and  manufactures 
in  the  shape  of  tribute  from  a  conquered  world,  and  probably 
exported  part  of  her  peculiar  productions  ;  but  we  are  not 
aware  that  there  is  any  ground  for  supposing  that  she  manu- 
factured goods  for  exportation  to  any  extent. 

Originally  mills  were  turned  by  hand.*  and  this  severe 
labour  seems,  in  all  half-savage  times,  to  have  been  conducted 
by  women.  It  was  so  in  Kgypt ;  t  it  was  so  in  Greece  in  the 
time  of  Homer,  who  employs  fifty  females  in  the  house  of 
Alcinous  upon  this  service.  It  was  so  in  Palestine  in  the 
time  of  the  Evangelists,  and  in  England  in  the  fourteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  We  find  a  passage  of  St.  Matthew 
thus  rendered  by  Wicliffe  :  "  Two  wymmen  schulen  (shall) 
be  grinding  in  one  querne,"  or  hand-mill ;  and  Harrison  the 
historian,  two  centuries  later,  says  that  his  wife  ground  her 
malt  at  home  upon  her  quern.  Among  the  Eomans  poor 
freemen  used  sometimes  to  hire  themselves  out  to  the  service 
of  the  mill  when  all  other  resources  failed ;  and  Plautus  is 
said  to  have  done  so,  being  reduced  to  the  extreme  of  poverty, 
and  to  have  composed  his  comedies  while  thus  employed. 
This  labour,  however,  fell  chiefly  upon  slaves,  and  is  repre- 
sented as  being  the  severest  drudgery  w^hich  they  had  to 
undergo.  Those  who  had  been  guilty  of  any  offence  were 
^ent  to  the  mill  as  a  punishment,  and  sometimes  forced  to 

*  Many  establishments  may  still  be  seen  in  the  streets  of  Naples  for  grind- 
ing corn  by  means  of  a  hand-mill,  turned  by  a  man.  Such  flour-shops  have 
always  a  picture  of  the  Madonna  inside. — Ed. 

t  And  all  the  tirbt-born  of  the  land  of  Egypt  shall  die,  from  the  first-born 
of  Pharaoh  that  sitteth  upon  his  throne,  even  unto  the  first-born  of  the  maid- 
servant that  is  behind  the  mill,  and  all  the  first-born  of  beasts. — Exod.  xi.  5. 


358 


POMPEII. 


work  in  cliains.  Asses,  however,  were  used  by  those  who 
could  afford  it.  The  bas-relief  at  the  head  of  this  chapter 
represents  an  ass  in  a  mill,  and  he  seems  to  be  blindfolded, 
to  prevent  his  taking  fright.  That  useful  animal  seems  to 
have  been  employed  in  the  establishment  we  are  describing, 
for  the  fragment  of  a  jaw-bone,  with  several  teeth  in  it,  was 
found  in  a  room  which  seems  to  have  been  the  stable ;  and 
the  floor  about  the  mills  is  paved  with  rough  pieces  of  stone, 
while  in  the  rest  of  the  rooms  it  is  made  of  stucco  or  compost. 
The  use  of  water-mills,  however,  was  not  unknown  to  the 
Romans.  Vitruvius  describes  their  construction  in  terms  not 
inapplicable  to  the  mechanism  of  a  common  mill  of  the 
j)resent  day,*  and  other  ancient  authors  refer  to  them.  "  Set 
not  your  hands  to  the  mill,  O  women  that  turn  the  mill- 
stone !  sleep  sound  though  the  cock's  crow  announce  the 
dawn,  for  Ceres  has  charged  the  nymphs  with  the  labours 
which  employed  your  arms.  These,  dashing  from  the  summit 
of  a  wheel,  make  its  axle  revolve,  which,  by  the  help  of 
moving  radii,  sets  in  action  the  weight  of  four  hollow  mills. 
We  taste  anew  the  life  of  the  first  men,  since  we  have  learnt 
to  enjoy,  without  fatigue,  the  produce  of  Ceres. "f 

In  the  centre  of  the  pier,  at  the  back,  is  the  aperture  to 
the  cistern  by  which  the  water  used  in  making  bread  was 
supplied.  On  each  side  are  vessels  to  hold  the  water  On 
the  pier  above  is  a  painting,  J  divided  horizontally  into  two 


Painting  in  the  Bakehouse. 


compartments.  The  figures  in  the  upper  one  are  said  to 
represent  the  worship  of  the  goddess  Fornax,  the  goddess  of 
the  oven,  which  seems  to  have  been  deified  solely  for  the 

*  Vitmv.  X.  10. 

t  Antipater  of  Thessalonica,  ap.  Brunck.  Analecta  GroGca,  torn.  ii.  p.  119. 
X  Now  obliterated. 


ART  OF  BAKIXa. 


359 


advantages  which  it  possessed  over  the  old  method  of  baking 
on  the  hearth.  Below,  two  guardian  serpents  roll  towards 
an  altar  crowned  with  a  fruit  very  much  like  a  pine-apple ; 
while  above,  two  little  birds  are  in  chase  of  large  flies. 
These  birds,  thus  placed  in  a  symbolical  picture,  may  be 
considered,  in  perfect  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  ancient 
mythology,  as  emblems  of  the  genii  of  the  place,  employed 
in  driving  those  troublesome  insects  from  the  bread. 

The  oven  is  on  the  left.  It  is  made  with  considerable 
attention  to  economy  of  heat.  The  real  oven  is  enclosed  in 
a  sort  of  ante -oven,  which  had  an  aperture  in  the  top  for 
the  smoke  to  escape.  The  hole  in  the  side  is  for  the  intro- 
duction of  dough,  which  was  prepared  in  the  adjoining  room, 
and  deposited  through  that  hole  upon  the  shovel  with  which 
the  man  in  front  placed  it  in  the  oven.  The  bread,  when 
baked,  was  conveyed  to  cool  in  a  room  on  the  other  side  the 
oven,  by  a  similar  aperture.  Beneath  the  oven  is  an  ash-pit. 
To  the  right  is  a  large  room  which  is  conjectured  to  have 
been  a  stable.  The  jaw-bone  above  mentioned  and  some 
other  fragments  of  a  skeleton  were  found  in  it.  There  is  a 
reservoir  for  water  at  the  further  end,  which  passes  through 
the  wall,  and  is  common  both  to  this  room  and  the  next,  so- 
that  it  could  be  tilled  without  going  into  the  stable.  The 
further  room  is  fitted  up  with  stone  basins,  which  seem  to 
have  been  the  kneading-troughs.  It  contains  also  a  narrow 
and  inconvenient  staircase. 

Though  bread-corn  formed  the  principle  article  of  nourish- 
ment among  the  Italians,  the  use  of  bread  itself  was  not  of 
early  date.  For  a  long  time  the  Eomans  used  their  corn 
sodden  into  pap,  and  there  were  no  bakers  in  Eome  ante- 
cedent to  the  war  against  Perseus,  king  of  Macedonia,*  about 
A.  u.  680.  Before  this  every  house  made  its  own  bread,  and 
this  was  the  task  of  the  women,  except  in  great  houses,  where 
there  were  men-cooks.  And  even  after  the  invention  of  bread 
it  was  long  before  the  use  of  mills  was  known,  but  the  grain 
was  bruised  in  mortars.  Hence  the  names pistor  and pistrinum , 
a  baker  and  baker's  shop,  which  are  derived  from  pinsere^  to 
pound.  The  oven  also  was  of  late  introduction,  as  we  have 
hinted  in  speaking  of  the  goddess  Fornax,  nor  did  it  ever 


*  Pliny,  xviii. 


360 


POMPEII. 


come  into  exclusive  use.  We  hear  of  panis  suhcineritmSy 
bread  baked  under  the  ashes  ;  artopticius,  baked  in  the  artopta, 
or  bread-pan,  which  was  probably  of  the  nature  of  a  Dutch 
oven  ;  and  other  sorts,  named  either  from  the  method  of  their 
preparation  or  the  purpose  to  which  they  were  to  be  applied. 
The  finest  sort  was  called  siligineus,  and  was  prepared  from 
siligo,  the  best  and  whitest  sort  of  wheaten  flour.  A  bushel 
of  the  best  wheat  of  Campania,  which  was  of  the  first  quality, 
containing  sixteen  sextarii,  yielded  four  sextarii  of  siligo, 
here  seemingly  used  for  the  finest  flour  ;  half  a  bushel  oiflos, 
bolted  flour:  four  sextarii  of  ciharium,  seconds;  and  four 
cextarii  of  bran ;   thus  giving  an  excess  of  four  sextarii. 


Bread  dibcovered  in  Pompeii. 

Their  loaves  appear  to  have  been  very  often  baked  in  moulds, 
several  of  which  have  been  found :  these  may  possibly  be 
artoptas,  and  the  loaves  thus  baked,  artopticii.  Several  of 
these  loaves  have  been  found  entire.  They  are  flat,  and 
about  eight  inches  in  diameter.  One  in  the  Neapolitan 
Museum  has  a  stamp  on  the  top  : — 

SILIGO  .  CRANII 
E    .  GICER 

This  has  been  interpreted  to  mean  that  cicer  (vetch)  was  mixed 
with  the  flour.  We  know  from  Pliny  that  the  Eomans  used 
several  sorts  of  grain. 


362 


POMPEII. 


In  front  of  tlie  house,  one  on  eacli  side  the  doorway,  there 
are  two  shops.  Neither  of  these  has  any  communication 
with  the  house  :  it  is  inferred,  therefore,  that  they  were  let 
out  to  others,  like  the  shops  belonging  to  more  distinguished 
persons.  This  supposition  is  the  more  probable,  because 
none  of  the  bakeries  found  have  had  shops  attached  to  them  ; 
and  there  is  a  painting  in  the  grand  work  on  Herculaneum, 
Le  Pitture  d'Ercolano,  which  represents  a  bread-seller  esta- 
blished in  the  Forum,  with  his  goods  on  a  little  table  in  the 
open  air.* 

There  is  only  one  other  trade,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  with 
respect  to  the  practices  of  which  any  knowledge  has  been 
gained  from  the  excavations  at  Pompeii — that  of  fulling  and 
scouring  cloth.  This  art,  owing  to  the  difference  of  ancient 
and  modern  habits,  was  of  much  greater  importance  formerly 
than  it  now  is.  Wool  was  almost  the  only  material  used  for 
dresses  in  the  earlier  times  of  Eome,  silk  being  unknown 
till  a  late  period,  and  linen  garments  being  very  little  used. 
Woollen  dresses,  however,  especially  in  the  hot  climate  of 
Italy,  must  often  have  required  a  thorough  purification,  and 
on  the  manner  in  which  this  was  done  of  course  their  beauty 
very  much  depended.  And  since  the  toga,  the  chief  article 
of  Eoman  costume,  was  woven  in  one  piece,  and  was  of  course 
expensive,  to  make  it  look  and  wear  as  well  as  possible  was 
very  necessary  to  persons  of  small  fortune.  The  method 
pursued  has  been  described  by  Pliny  and  others,  and  is  well 
illustrated  in  some  paintings  found  upon  the  walls  of  a 
building,  which  evidently  was  a  fuUonica,  or  scouring-house. 
The  building  in  question  is  entered  from  the  Street  of 
Mercury,  and  is  situated  in  the  same  island  as  the  House  of 
the  Tragic  Poet.  A  plan  of  the  whole  island,  including  the 
Fullonica,  is  given  on  p.  367. 

The  first  operation  was  that  of  washing,  which  was  done 
with  water  mixed  with  some  detergent  clay,  or  fuller's  earth : 
soap  does  not  appear  to  have  been  used.  This  was  done  in 
vats,  where  the  cloths  were  trodden  and  well  worked  by  the 
feet  of  the  scourer.  The  preceding  cut,  taken  from  the  walls 
of  the  Fullonica,  represents  four  persons  thus  employed. 
Their  dress  is  tucked  up,  leaving  the  legs  bare  :  it  consists  of 

*  One  of  the  bakeries  in  the  House  of  Pansa  seems  to  have  had  a  shop 
attached  to  it. — Ed. 


FULLONICA. 


363 


two  tunics,  the  tinder  one  being  yellow  and  the  upper  green. 
Three  of  them  seem  to  have  done  their  work,  and  to  be 
wi'inging  the  articles  on  which  they  have  been  employed ; 
the  other,  his  hands  resting  on  the  w^all  on  each  side,  is 
jumj^ing,  and  busily  working  about  the  contents  of  his  vat. 
When  dry,  the  cloth  was  brushed  and  carded,  to  raise  the  nap 
— at  first  with  metal  cards,  afterwards  wdth  thistles.  A  plant 
called  teazle  is  now  largely  cultivated  in  England  for  the 
same  purpose.    The  cloth  v^as  then  fumigated  wdth  sulphur, 


Carding  a  Tunic;  from  a  painting  in  the  Fullonica. 

and  bleached  in  the  sun  by  throwing  water  repeatedly  upon 
it  while  spread  out  on  gi'atings.  In  the  j)receding  cut  the 
workman  is'  represented  as  brushing  or  carding  a  tunic 
suspended  over  a  rope.  Another  man  carries  a  frame  and 
pot,  meant  probably  foi'  fumigation  and  bleaching ;  the  pot 
containing  live  coals  and  sulphur,  and  being  placed  under 
the  frame,  so  that  the  cloths  spread  upon  the  latter  would  be 
fully  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  pent-up  vapour.  The 


364 


POMPEII. 


person  who  carries  these  things  wears  something  on  his  head, 
which  is  said  to  be  an  olive  garland.  If  so,  that,  and  the  owl 
sitting  upon  the  frame,  probably  indicate  that  the  establish- 
ment was  under  the  patronage  of  Minerva,  the  tutelary 
goddess  of  the  loom.  Below  is  a  female  examining  the  work 
which  a  younger  girl  has  done  upon  a  piece  of  yellow  cloth. 
A  golden  net  upon  her  head,  a  necklace  and  bracelets,  denote 
a  person  of  higher  rank  than  one  of  the  mere  workpeople  of 
the  establishment :  it  probably  is  either  the  mistress  herself, 
or  a  customer  inquiring  into  the  quality  of  the  work  which 
has  been  done  for  her. 


Clothps-press  ;  from  a  painting  in  the  P'ulloni* 


These  pictures,  with  others  illustrative  of  the  various 
processes  of  the  art,  were  found  upon  a  pier  in  the  peristyle 
of  the  FuUonica.    Among  them  we  may  mention  one  that 


FULLONICA. 


365 


represents  a  press,  similar  in  construction  to  those  now  in 
use,  except  that  there  is  an  unusual  distance  between  the 
threads  of  the  screw.  The  ancients,  therefore,  were  acquainted 
with  the  practical  application  of  this  mechanical  power.  In 
another  is  to  be  seen  a  youth  delivering  some  pieces  of  cloth 
to  a  female,  to  whom,  perhaps,  the  task  of  ticketing,  and 
preserving  distinct  the  different  property  of  different  persons, 
was  allotted.  It  is  rather  a  curious  proof  of  the  importance 
attached  to  this  trade,  that  the  due  regulation  of  it  was  a 
subject  thought  not  unworthy  of  legislative  enactments. 
A.  u.  354,  the  censors  laid  dow^n  rules  for  regulating  the 
manner  of  washing  dresses ;  and  we  learn  from  the  digests  of 
the  Eoman  law,  that  scourers  were  compelled  to  use  the 
greatest  care  not  to  lose  or  to  confound  property.  Another 
female,  seated  on  a  stool,  seems  occupied  in  cleaning  one  of 
the  cards.  Both  of  the  figures  last  described  wear  green 
tunics :  the  first  of  them  has  a  yellow  under-tunic,  the  latter 
a  white  one.  The  resemblance  in  colours  between  these 
dresses  and  those  of  the  male  fullers  above  described  may 
perhaps  warrant  a  conjecture  that  there  was  some  kind  of 
livery  or  prescribed  di*ess  belonging  to  the  establishment, 
or  else  the  contents  of  the  painter's  colour-box  must  have 
been  very  limited. 

The  whole  pier  on  which  these  paintings  were  found  has 
been  removed  to  the  museum  at  Naples.  In  the  peristyle 
was  a  large  earthenware  jar,  which  had  been  broken  across 
the  middle,  and  the  pieces  then  sewn  carefully  and  laboriously 
together  wdth  wire.  The  value  of  these  vessels,  therefore, 
cannot  have  been  very  small,  though  they  were  made  of  the 
most  common  clay.  At  the  eastern  end  of  the  peristyle  there 
was  a  pretty  fountain,  with  a  jet  d'eau.  The  western  end  is 
occupied  by  four  large  vats  in  masonry,  lined  with  stucco, 
about  seven  feet  deep,  which  seem  to  have  received  the  water 
in  succession,  one  from  another 


366 


POMPEII. 


Small  Painting  in  the  Tragic  Poet's  House. 


CHAPTER  VIL 

HOUSE  OF  THE  TRAGIC  POET — OF  THE  GREAT  AND  LITTLli 
FOUNTAINS — OF  APOLLO — THE  FAUN,  ETC. 

The  island  whicli  lies  eastward  of  the  House  of  Pansa  eon- 
tains,  besides  the  Fulloniea,  three  houses,  the  discovery  of 
which  excited  a  great  sensation,  not  so  much  for  their  extent, 
which  is  small  compared  with  that  of  several  others,  but  on 
account  of  the  richness  and  beauty,  or  singularity  of  their 
decorations.  These  have  respectively  received  the  names  of 
the  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet,  and  the  Houses  of  the  Great 
and  Little  Fountains.    We  give  a  larger  plan  of  this  island. 

The  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet  was  excavated  towards  the 
end  of  the  year  1824,  and  excited  universal  admiration  from 
the  number  and  beauty  of  its  paintings.  Of  these  some  have 
been  removed  to  the  Museum  at  Naples;   the  rest  have 


HOUSE  OF  THE  TRAGIC  POET. 


367 


368 


POMPEII. 


perished,  or  are  perishing.  Tins  is  the  more  to  be  regretted, 
because,  at  a  small  expense,  the  whole  house  might  have 
been  covered  in,  and  preserved  for  many  years  in  nearly  the 
same  state  of  beauty  as  when  it  was  first  discovered.  For- 
tunately, the  art  of  detaching  frescoes  from  walls,  in  order 
to  rescue  them  from  the  certain  ruin  consequent  on  exposure 
to  weather,  has  been  brought  to  such  perfection,  that  of  the 
numerous  experiments  which  have  been,  and  continue  to  be 
made  (for  every  fresco  of  importance  is  removed),  not  one 
has  failed.  This  process  is  not  one  of  modern  invention, 
but  was  known  to  the  ancients. 

The  doors  turned  upon  pivots,  received  in  two  bronze 
sockets  let  into  the  marble  threshold,  the  outer  part  of  which 


Mosaic  at  the  entrance  of  the  Prothymm  of  the  Tragic  Poet's  House. 


rises  about  an  inch  higher  than  the  bottom  of  the  door.  Upon 
entering  the  visitor  may  be  startled,  for  the  first  object  which 
meets  his  eye  is  a  large  fierce  dog,  apparently  in  the  act  of 


HOUSE  OF  THE  TRAGIC  POET. 


369 


springing  upon  him.  This  device  is  worked  in  mosaic  on 
the  pavement,  and  is  well  executed  :  the  dog  is  black,  spotted 
with  white,  and  he  has  a  red  collar.  Beneath  is  written,  in 
large  legible  characters,  "  Cave  Canem  "  ('Ware  Dog).*  It 
appears  from  ancient  authorities  that  it  was  not  uncommon 
to  place  pictures  of  dogs  in  the  vestibule  with  this  inscrip- 
tion; and,  indeed,  w^e  may  suppose  that  live  dogs  were 
sometimes  kept  there,  since  it  seems  hardly  possible  to  have 
dispensed  with  the  protection  of  those  watchful  animals, 
where  the  whole  house,  as  was  the  ancient  custom,  stood  so 
invitingly  open  to  every  visitor.  Below  the  inscription  is  a 
hole  in  the  pavement,  to  give  passage  to  the  rain  water  which 
might  force  its  way  in  ;  a  clumsy  contrivance,  indicative  of 
bad  workmanship. 

The  reader  will  be  at  no  loss  to  comprehend  the  disposition 
of  the  house  after  the  many  examples  which' have  been  fully 
explained,  and  to  recognize  the  vestibule,  atrium,  alae,  tabli- 
num,  fauces,  and  peristyle.  The  large  room  on  the  right  of 
the  peristyle  is  the  triclinium ;  beside  it  is  the  kitchen ;  the 
smaller  apartments  which  surround  it  and  the  atrium  are 
chambers  for  the  use  of  the  family.  The  one  next  to  the 
private  entrance  into  the  peristyle  is  called  the  library^  and 
is  lighted  by  the  window,  of  which  a  view  has  been  already 
given  from  without.  These  rooms  are  all  about  twelve  feet 
in  height.  They  were  generally  closed  by  folding- doors, 
as  is  evident  from  the  sockets  let  into  the  thresholds  to 
receive  the  pivots  upon  which  they  turned,  and  from  the 
two  holes  in  the  centre  for  bolts.  The  two  large  apart- 
ments on  each  side  of  the  vestibule  appear,  from  the  ample 
openings  in  front  of  them,  to  have  been  shops ;  but  they 
communicate  with  the  corridor,  which  is  not  usual,  except 
where  the  shops  were  occupied  by  the  master  of  the  house. 
It  has  been  supposed,  from  the  number  of  valuable  articles 
found  in  them,  that  the  occupier  was  a  jeweller  or  gold- 
smith, and  the  arrangement  of  these  shops  gives  some 
countenance  to  this  opinion."]*    Nor  is  there  any  strong 

*  This  mosaic  is  now  removed  to  the  floor  of  the  room  containing  the  col- 
lections from  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  in  the  National  Museum  at  Naples. 

t  This  idea  was  started  by  Gell.  But  these  valuable  articles  were  found  at 
a  height  of  about  six  palms  from  the  floor,  and  seem  to  have  fallen  in,  together 
with  some  pieces  of  mosaic  pavement,  fi  om  an  upper  story. — See  Pomp.  Ant. 
Hist.,  Oct.  IG,  1824  (t.  ii.  p.  126).— Ed. 

2  D 


370 


POMPEII. 


evidence  to  support  tlie  belief  that  it  belonged  to  a  poet ;  for 
excepting  the  mosaic  representing  the  distribution  of  masks, 
and  the  picture  of  a  poet  reading,  there  is  nothing  in  the 
house  particularly  connected  either  with  tragedy  or  poetry. 
The  owner,  however,  was  evidently  a  man  of  taste  and 
cultivation. 

The  vestibule  is  about  six  feet  wide,  and  nearly  thirty 
long :  a  curtain  or  door  was  probably  placed  at  the  entrance 
of  the  atrium,  which  is  about  twenty-eight  feet  by  twenty. 
It  is  provided  as  usual  with  impluvium  and  puteal.  The 
floor  is  paved  with  white  tesserae,  spotted  with  black,  and 
round  the  impluvium  there  is  a  well-executed  interlaced 
pattern,  also  in  black.  The  walls  were  richly  ornamented 
with  paintings,  most  of  which,  however,  have  been  carried  to 
the  museum.  We  have  inserted  figures  in  the  plan,  with  a 
view  of  showing  their  distribution. 


1.  Marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis, 
otherwise  called  the  interview 
of  Thetis  and  Jupiter. 

2.  Parting  of  Acliilles  and  Briseis. 

3.  Painting  much  decayed,  sup- 
posed to  represent  the  de- 
parture of  Chi-yseis. 


4.  Battle  of  Amazons. 

5.  Fall  of  Icarus. 

6.  Venus  Anadyomene. 

7.  Sacrifice  of  Iphigenia. 

8.  Leda  and  Tyndareus. 

9.  Theseus  and  Ariadne. 
10.  Cupid. 


The  subject  of  the  first  picture  is  at  best  doubtful.  It 
consists  of  three  principal  figures — a  man  of  middle  age 
seated,  who  is  in  the  act  of  taking  the  left  arm  of  a  female, 
who  seems  to  extend  it  reluctantly,  with  an  expression  by  no 
means  good-tempered.  A  winged  figure,  which  stands  behind 
her,  seems  to  urge  her  on,  and  to  induce  her  to  present  the 
right  hand.  At  Peleus'  feet  are  three  children,  which  may 
be,  it  is  said,  the  offspring  of  a  former  marriage  to  Antigone. 
These  children,  however,  if  such  they  are,  are  men  in  minia- 
ture, though,  judging  by  their  size,  they  should  be  little 
better  than  infants.  A  similar  fault  is  found  by  critics  in 
the  celebrated  group  of  Laocoon.  The  countenance  of  the 
goddess  is,  as  we  have  said,  by  no  means  amiable.  Some 
perceive  in  this  the  reluctance  with  which  she  consented  to  a 
mortal  alliance,  especially  to  a  widower  with  three  children ; 
others  have  imagined  that  the  picture  represents  the  return 
of  Helen  to  Menelaus,  when  the  lady  certainly  had  good 


HOUSE  OF  THE  TKAGIC  POET. 


371 


cause  to  look  rather  sulky ;  others  believe  it  to  represent  the 
moment  when  Thetis  complains  to  Jupiter  of  the  injustice 
done  to  Achilles.  In  neither  of  tlio  two  latter  interpretations 
ate  the  children  and  the  winged  figure  accounted  for ;  and  of 
three  unsatisfactory  solutions,  the  first  appears  the  best, 
especially  as  a  pillar  in  the  back-ground  supports  instruments 
of  music,  which  seem  more  in  character  with  a  wedding  than 
with  either  of  the  other  two  occasions.  The  story  is  well 
known.  Jupiter  was  enamoured  of  Thetis,  but  was  prevented 
from  prosecuting  his  suit  by  an  oracle  which  declared  that 
she  would  bear  a  son  who  would  prove  greater  than  his 
father.  In  consequence  of  this  it  was  determined  to  marry 
her  to  a  mortal,  and  Peleus  w^as  the  person  fixed  upon.  The 
heads  and  drapery  are  said  to  be  fine,  but,  as  a  w^hole,  the 
picture  is  far  inferior  in  beauty  to  that  which  we  have  next 
to  describe  ;  which  represents  Achilles  delivering  Biiseis  to 
the  heralds,  who  were  to  conduct  her  to  Agamemnon. 
Eather  than  attempt  to  describe,  at  second  -  hand,  this, 
perhaps  the  most  beautiful  specimen  of  ancient  painting 
which  has  been  preserved  to  modern  times,  we  will  avail 
ourselves  of  Sir  W.  Gell's  description,  from  whom  indeed 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  information  contained  in  this  chapter 
is  drawn.  The  size  of  the  painting  is  four  feet  wide  by  four 
feet  two  inches  high. 

"  The  scene  seems  to  take  place  in  the  tent  of  Achilles, 
who  sits  in  the  centre.  Patroclus,  with  his  back  towards  the 
spectator,  and  with  a  skin  of  deeper  red,  leads  in  from  the 
left  the  lovely  Briseis,  arrayed  in  a  long  and  floating  veil  of 
apple  green.  Her  face  is  beautiful,  and,  not  to  dwell  upon 
the  archness  of  her  eye,  it  is  evident  that  the  voluptuous 
pouting  of  her  ruby  lip  was  imagined  by  the  painter  as  one 
of  her  most  bewitching  attributes.  Achilles  presents  the 
fair  one  to  the  heralds  on  his  right,  and  his  attitude,  his 
manly  beauty,  and  the  magnificent  expression  of  his  counte- 
nance are  inimitable. 

"  The  tent  seems  to  be  divided  by  a  drapery  about  breast- 
high,  and  of  a  sort  of  dark-bluish  green,  like  the  tent  itself. 
Behind  this  stand  several  warriors,  the  golden  shield  of  one 
of  whom,  whether  intentionally  or  not  on  the  part  of  the 
painter,  forms  a  sort  of  glory  round  the  head  of  the  principal 
hero. 


372 


POMPEII. 


"  It  is  probably  the  copy  of  one  of  tlie  most  celebrated 
pictures  of  antiquity. 

''When  first  discovered  the  colours  were  fresh,  and  the 
flesh  particularly  had  the  transparency  of  Titian.  It  suffered 
much  and  unavoidably  during  the  excavation,  and  something 
from  the  means  taken  to  preserve  it,  when  a  committee  of 
persons  qualified  to  judge  had  decided  that  the  wall  on  which 
it  was  painted  was  not  in  a  state  to  admit  of  its  removal  with 
safety.  At  length,  after  an  exposure  of  more  than  two  years, 


Achilles  delivering  Briseis  to  the  Heralds. 

it  was  thought  better  to  attempt  to  transport  it  to  the  Studii 
at  Naples  than  to  suffer  it  entirely  to  disappear  from  the 
wall.  It  was  accordingly  removed  with  success  in  the  summer 
of  the  year  1826,  and  it  is  hoped  that  some  remains  of  it 
may  exist  for  posterity. 

"  The  painter  has  chosen  the  moment  when  the  heralds 
Talthybius  and  Eurybates  are  put  in  possession  of  Briseis, 


HOUSE  OF  THE  TEAGIC  POET 


373 


to  escort  her  to  the  tent  of  Agamemnon,  as  described  in  the 
first  book  of  the  Iliad,*  and  thus  translated  by  Pope  : — 

Patroclus  now  the  unwilling  beauty  brought  • 
She  in  soft  sorrow  and  in  pensive  thought 
Passed  silent,  as  the  heralds  held  her  hand, 
And  oft  looked  back,  slow  moving  o'er  the  sand. 

"  The  head  of  Achilles  is  so  full  of  fire  and  animation,  that 
an  attempt  has  been  made  to  introduce  a  facsimile  of  it. 


Head  of  Achilles. 


Though  a  facsimile,  as  far  as  being  traced  with  transparent 
paper  from  the  original  can  make  it  so,  it  gives  but  a  very 
imperfect  idea  of  the  divinity  which  seems  to  animate  the 
hero  of  the  painting.f  The  extreme  vivacity,  dignity  and 
beauty  of  the  head  are  but  faintly  expressed,  and  all  those 
faults  seem  exaggerated  which  the  skill  of  the  artist  and 

*  A.  345. 

t  This  IS  very  finely  engraved  in  the  second  series  of  Sir  William  Cell's 
Pompeiana.    [The  original  drawing  was  made  by  Ternites.] 


374 


POMPEII. 


the  colouring  of  the  original  concealed.  One  of  the  eyes  in 
particular  is  larger  than  the  other,  and  there  may  be  other 
defects,  which  totally  disappear  when  observed  with  the 
entire  painting,  leaving  the  impression  of  the  finest  youthful 
head  in  existence."*  Patroclus  stands  by  Achilles,  his  face 
half  turned  to  the  spectator  with  a  lowering  expression,  as  if 
he  sympathized  in  the  injury  done  to  his  friend,  and  waited 
but  his  signal  to  resent  it,  while  groups  of  myrmidons  in 
the  background  seem  to  share  in  his  feelings. 

Corresponding  with  this,  on  the  left  of  the  door  of  the 
cubiculum,  is  another  picture,  which  unfortunately  is  so 
much  defaced  that  the  very  subject  remains  doubtful.  The 
subject  of  Briseis,  however,  naturally  suggested  for  its  com- 
panion the  restoration  of  Chiyseis,  with  which  the  remains 
of  the  picture  agree  tolerably  well ;  though  they  have  also 
been  taken  to  represent  Andromache  with  the  young  Astyanax 
going  into  slavery  after  the  capture  of  Troy.  All  that  can 
be  made  out  is  a  female  in  long  robes,  under  a  blue  sky, 
whose  hands  are  kissed  by  children,  while  an  elderly  per- 
son looks  on  from  the  right ;  and  on  the  left,  under  a  red 
portal,  an  armed  man  with  helmet  and  plume  is  seen  behind 
the  principal  figure.  The  chief  personage  seems  to  be 
stepping  on  board  a  galley. 

To  the  left  of  this  picture  is  the  ala,  or  wing,  of  which  in 
this  house  there  is  but  one.  It  presents  nothing  remarkable. 
Opposite  to  the  picture  of  Achilles  and  Briseis  is  a  sea-piece, 
now  almost  undistinguishable,  though  at  first  it  might  be 
recognized  as  commemorating  the  fall  of  Icarus.  A  winged 
sea-god  on  a  dolphin  seems  to  be  assisting  the  unfortunate 
adventurer.  The  other  picture  in  this  atrium,  on  the  left 
side  of  the  entrance,  is  a  Venus,  at  whose  feet  a  dove  is 
lying  with  a  myrtle  branch  in  her  beak.  The  figure  resembles 
in  attitude  the  Medicean  Yenus,  and  the  colouring  is  compli- 
mented by  being  compared  to  that  of  Titian.  Still  to  the 
left  of  this  is  a  small  chamber  painted  yellow,  with  black 
pilasters,  in  which  there  was  a  staircase  which  led  to  the 
upper  floor.  During  the  excavations,  the  fragments  of  a 
mosaic  pavement,  containing  a  head  of  Bacchus  which  had 
fallen  from  above,  were  found,  together  with  a  considerable 

*  Gell,  second  series,  vol.  i.  p.  155-7 ;  vol.  ii.  p.  105. 

i 


HOUSE  OF  THE  TKACtIC  POET. 


375 


number  and  variety  of  female  ornaments.  xA.mong  these 
were  two  gold  necklaces,  a  twisted  gold  cord,  four  bracelets 
formed  into  serpents  with  many  convolutions,  one  weighing 
seven  ounces,  four  earrings,  each  of  two  pearls,  suspended 
as  it  were  from  a  balance,  and  a  ring  of  onyx,  with  a  youth- 
ful head  engraved  on  it.  These  jewels  seemed  to  have  fallen 
from  the  upper  story,  and  lay  not  more  than  five  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  Fragments  of  skeletons  were  found 
on  the  same  spot,  which  bore  marks  of  having  been  pre- 
viously searched,  though  without  finding  the  valuables  which 
probably  were  known  to  be  contained  about  this  place.  In 
other  parts  of  the  house  a  number  of  coins,  and  various 
articles  in  bronze,  iron,  and  earthenware  were  found  ;  among 
them  hatchets,  a  hammer,  kitchen  utensils,  two  heels  for 
boots,  with  holes  for  nails,  lamps,  bottles,  &c. 

The  paintings  of  one  side  of  the  central  chamber  on  this 
side  of  the  atrium  are  also  remarkable.  It  is  divided  into 
rectangular  compartments  by  three  perpendicular  and  three 
horizontal  lines.  Upon  a  basement  stand  columns  support- 
ing an  entablature,  on  each  side  of  which  are  represented  in 
perspective  other  columns,  forming  galleries,  decorated  with 
festoons,  vases,  and  griffins  :  at  the  base  of  the  larger  columns 
is  a  balustrade,  which  species  of  ornament  appears  so  fre- 
quently in  these  architectural  paintings,  that  we  are  led  to 
conclude  it  was  in  common  use  as  a  protection  to  the  terraces 
which  surmounted  the  Pompeian  houses.  In  the  centre  is  a 
painting  of  Phrixus  and  Ilelle,  and  on  each  side  of  the 
columns  are  Cupids,  carrying  difierent  articles  of  female 
dress.  Above  the  whole  is  a  broad  frieze,  upon  which  is 
represented,  on  a  white  ground,  the  combat  between  the 
Greeks  and  Amazons.  Some  of  the  female  warriors  are  in 
chariots,  some  on  horses,  and  they  are  armed  with  bows  as 
well  as  with  their  usual  shields  and  battle-axes.  They  are 
clothed  in  blue,  green,  and  purple  draperies,  and  are  repre- 
sented in  violent  action,  often  pursuing  the  Greeks,  at  times 
falling  before  them.  The  men  are  distinguished  by  wearing 
helmets,  while  the  women  have  the  head  bare.  These  figures 
are  more  remarkal)le  for  their  spirited  composition  than  for 
accuracy  of  drawing,  nor  can  they  be  esteemed  equal,  in 
respect  of  finish,  to  several  of  the  paintings  found  in  this 
house.    One  figure  of  a  wounded  Amazon,  whose  horse  is 


376 


POMPEII. 


falling,  and  wlio  yet  retains  lier  seat,  is  mentioned  as  a 
masterpiece  of  attitude.  In  this  chamber  there  is  also  a 
painting  of  Europa  and  the  Bull. 

We  now  come  to  the  tablinum.  The  most  remarkable 
thing  in  it  is  the  mosaic  representing  the  distribution  of 
masks  to  a  chorus,  which  has  been  figured,  and  described  in 
Part,  I.,  p.  203.  This  room  also  contains  the  picture  ol 
a  poet  reading,  which  has  been  chiefly  instrumental  in  pro- 
curing for  the  house  the  name  which  it  now  bears.  In  the 
foreground  is  a  male  figure,  reading  from  a  roll  to  two 
others,  one  male  the  other  female,  all  seated.  In  the  back- 
ground, leaning  on  a  sort  of  partition  which  separates  them 
from  the  others,  are  Apollo  and  a  female  figure,  supposed  to 
be  a  Muse,  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  painting  a  woman 
and  an  old  man.  The  skin  of  the  reader  is  considerably 
darker  than  that  of  the  others,  which  has  made  some  persons 
suppose  that  he  was  a  slave,  and  that  it  represents  Plautus, 
or  some  of  the  Athenians  taken  prisoners  at  Syi'acuse,  who 
are  reported  by  Thucydides  to  have  softened  the  hardships  of 
their  fate  in  consequence  of  the  delight  which  their  masters 
took  in  hearing  them  repeat  the  verses  of  Euripides.  Others 
think  that  it  is  the  celebrated  scene  which  occurred  when 
Virgil  was  reciting  the  ^neid  to  Augustus  and  Octavia,  when 
he  came  to  the  elegiac  passage  upon  the  death  of  Marcellus, 
but  the  very  scanty  drapery  of  both  the  male  figui-es  rather 
militates  against  this  conclusion.  The  walls  are  adorned 
with  a  variety  of  fantastical  ornaments,  such  as  pillars  with 
human  heads  for  capitals,  sustaining  capricious  entablatures, 
swans,  goats,  lions,  &c.,  among  which  we  may  particularly 
mention  a  border  of  harpies  in  the  form  in  which  they  are 
usually  given,  as  this  is  said  to  be  perhaps  the  only  ancient 
authority  for  the  form  of  those  beings  yet  found. 

The  peristyle  consists  of  seven  Doric  columns,  enclosing  a 
small  court,  probably  planted  with  flowers,  which  stand  upon 
a  sort  of  podium,  ]3ainted  red,  as  well  as  the  lower  part  of 
the  pillars.  A  tortoise  was  kept  in  the  garden,  as  we  may 
infer  from  the  shell  of  the  animal  being  foimd  on  the  spot. 
The  fui^ther  wall  is  painted  blue,  to  imitate  the  sky,  while 
below  it  the  tops  of  trees  are  visible  over  a  parapet,  forming 
another  specimen  of  that  sort  of  painting  known  by  the 
name  of  opera  tojjiaria,  which  we  have  described  in  speaking 


378 


POMPEII. 


of  the  House  of  Actaeoii.  At  the  left  angle  of  the  colonnade 
is  a  small  adicula,  or  shrine,  in  ^vhich  probably  stood  a 
statue  found  near  the  spot,  representing  a  faun  carrying 
flowers  and  fruits.  A  railing  ran  between  the  pillars  to 
prevent  wanton  intrusion  u]Don  the  flowers,  as  the  holes 
made  for  its  reception  still  show.  Several  frogs  in  terra- 
cotta were  found  here,  which  served  as  spouts  to  the  roof  of 
the  portico.  On  this  side  the  tablinum  was  evidently  closed 
with  doors  or  shutters,  of  the  kind  called  voluhiles,  in  many 
compartments  :  to  the  atrium  it  was  probably  closed  only  by 
curtains,  at  least  no  signs  of  the  existence  of  shutters,  on  that 
side  are  to  be  seen. 

On  the  left  side  of  the  peristyle  are  two  small  chambers, 
one  of  which  is  called  the  library,  from  a  painting  of  books 


Female  and  Cupid  fishing. 


and  implements  of  writing ;  the  other  contains  two  pictures, 
one  of  Venus  and  Cupid  fishing,  the  other  of  Ariadne.  Both 


HOUSE  OF  THE  TRAGIC  POET. 


379 


of  these  are  graceful  and  well  executed.  At  the  end  of  the 
right  branch  of  the  colonnade  is  the  sacrifice  of  Iphigenia. 
The  moment  is  taken  at  which  Chalcas  is  about  to  strike  the 
fatal  blow.  Iphigenia,  borne  in  the  arms  of  two  men,  is 
appealing  to  her  father,  who  stands  in  the  front  of  the 
picture,  turned  away  from  her,  with  his  head  veiled,  which 
we  may  suppose  to  have  been  the  received  way  of  treating 
the  subject  ever  after  the  first  painter  received  so  much 


The  Sacrifice  of  Iphigenia. 


applause  for  thus  escaping  the  necessity  of  expressing 
passions  which  his  art  was  unable  to  portray.  The  figure  of 
the  maiden  is  beautiful,  but,  by  a  strange  oversight,  she  has 
no  legs,  or  if  she  has,  they  are  hidden  behind  one  of  her 
supporters  in  a  way  which  it  is  not  very  easy  to  understand. 
The  draperies  are  for  the  most  part  shades  of  blue  and 
purple,  and  the  effect  of  the  whole  picture  is  too  red.  Above, 


380 


POMPEII. 


Diana  appears  in  tlie  clouds,  witli  the  hind  which  was  to 
supply  Iphigenia's  place  as  a  victim.  To  the  left  is  seen  a 
golden  statue  of  the  goddess,  bearing  a  lighted  torch  in  each 
hand,  and  with  two  dogs  at  her  feet. 

At  the  side  of  this  pictm^e  we  enter  a  room  near  twenty- 
feet  square,  and  of  considerable  height.  It  is  called  the 
Triclinium,  or  the  Chamber  of  Leda,  from  a  painting  which 


Leda  and  Tyndareus. 


occupies  the  centre  of  one  of  the  walls.  It  is  painted  with 
the  brightest  shades  of  red  and  yellow,  in  the  fantastic 
architectural  style  of  which  we  have  so  often  spoken.  In 
this  we  have  a  view  of  the  roof  and  impluvium  of  an  atrium, 
which,  if  there  were  any  doubt  as  to  the  internal  appearance 
of  that  member  of  the  building,  would  be  sufficient  to  remove 


HOUSE  OF  THE  TRAGIC  POET. 


381 


it.  It  is  decorated,  as  we  have  described  in  various  instances, 
with  ornamental  antefixes.  The  lower  part  of  the  wall  is 
decorated  with  garlands,  sea-horses,  and  other  ornaments,  on 
black  panels.  We  give  an  outline  of  the  painting,  which 
gives  its  name  to  the  chamber.  This  is  considered  to  be  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  productions  of  ancient  art,  not  only  for 
elegance  of  design,  but  for  chastity  and  harmony  of  colouring. 
The  mythological  fable  of  the  birth  of  Castor  and  Pollux, 
and  Helen,  is  so  well  knovvn  that  it  need  not  be  repeated. 
Leda  holds  her  three  children  in  a  boat-shaped  vessel,  that 
looks  almost  like  an  egg-shell,  and  presents  them  to  her 
husband  Tyndareus,  who  looks  at  them  with  a  pleased 
expression.  It  is  remarkable,  if  the  fact  be  correctly  stated, 
as  an  instance  of  the  change  which  takes  place  in  the  colours 
of  these  pictures  after  they  have  been  exposed  to  the  air, 
that  an  artist  who  copied  this  painting  a  few  days  after  its 
discovery,  states  that  the  drapery  of  the  princess  was  green, 
lined  w  ith  blue,  and  the  robe  of  Tyndareus  black,  lined  with 
green.  Yet  about  a  month  afterwards  the  robe  of  Leda  was 
red  and  that  of  Tyndareus  purple,  and  so  they  have  remained 
to  the  present  day.  Keds  usually  change  to  black.  The 
landscape  in  the  background  is  much  faded. 

The  other  two  numbers  in  this  room  refer  to  pictures,  one 
of  which  contains  a  beautiful  Cupid,  leaning  on  the  knees 
of  Venus,  to  whom  Adonis  seems  to  be  addressing  himself ; 
the  other  is  the  constantly -recurring  Ariadne,  the  most 
favourite,  except  perhaps  Perseus  and  Andromeda,  of  all 
subjects.  It  represents  her  sleeping  on  a  mattress,  her  head 
surrounded  by  an  azure  glory  (the  usual  colour),  while 
Theseus,  who  has  just  quitted  her,  is  in  the  act  of  stepping 
on  board  his  galley,  in  defiance  of  distance  and  perspective. 
Above,  Minerva  appears  in  the  air,  and  seems  to  direct  him. 
Both  of  these  paintings  are  much  defaced,  so  that  it  is  not 
easy  to  judge  of  their  merit,  but  the  composition  of  the  last 
has  nothing  to  recommend  it. 

On  the  plinth  is  painted  a  combat  between  two  centaurs 
and  a  lion.  The  fierce  animal  is  about  to  spring  upon  one  of 
them,  who  seems  to  call  to  his  companion  for  help,  and  the 
latter,  bearing  a  lance  in  his  hand,  turns  to  defend  him.  The 
truth  with  which  the  lion  is  pamted  is  x^markable,  and  may 
be  attributed  to  the  frequent  opportunities  which  painters 


384 


POMPEII. 


had  of  observing  wild  animals  in  the  sports  of  the  amphi- 
theatre. 

This  chamber  is  prettily  paved  in  mosaic,  and  is  conjectured 
to  have  been  lighted  by  a  row  of  small  windows  elevated 
above  the  roof  of  the  peristyle.  Even  in  its  present  state  it 
is  sufficiently  lofty. 

The  plate  on  p.  383,  which  represents  the  interior  of  this 
house  restored,  is  one  of  those  which  we  are  permitted  to 
extract  from  the  second  series  of  '  Pompeiana.'  Very  little 
of  this  restoration  is  the  work  of  fancy,  owing  to  the  perfect 
state  in  which  the  building  was  found.  The  roof  has  been 
added,  together  with  the  uppermost  part  of  the  walls ; 
the  ornaments  are  given,  either  from  indications  which 
remain,  or  are  copied  from  similar  situations  in  different 
houses.  The  view  comprehends  the  atrium,  tablinum,  and 
peristyle,  being  bounded  by  the  painted  wall  above  described. 
On  the  pier  on  the  right  hand  is  the  picture  of  Chryseis. 
Probably  the  entrance  to  the  tablinum  was  closed,  either  by 
curtains  or  by  folding  doors ;  but  in  the  uncertainty  of  the 
exact  nature  of  the  partition,  the  restorer  has  judged  it  better 
to  omit  it  altogether.  This  view  therefore  may  be  depended 
upon  for  conveying  a  tolerably  correct  notion  of  one  of  the 
most  elegant  houses,  upon  a  small  scale,  contained  in  Pompeii. 
The  total  want  of  privacy  is  repugnant  to  our  notions  of 
comfort ;  but  it  can  hardly  be  denied  that  there  is  an  air  of 
splendour  in  the  extensive  and  richly-decorated  suite  of  rooms, 
which  is  scarcely  equalled  in  modern  houses  of  a  similar 
class. 

Between  the  House  of  the  Poet  and  the  triumphal  arch 
are  several  rooms  which  bear  the  appearance  of  having  been 
used  as  places  of  refreshment  for  those  who  frequented  the 
baths.  In  one  of  these  was  discovered  a  skeleton  under  a 
stone  staircase.  He  had  with  him  a  treasure  of  considerable 
value,  consisting  of  rings  and  earrings  of  gold,  together  with 
about  one  hundred  and  forty  coins  of  brass  and  silver.  Some- 
where in  this  neighbourhood  there  were  found,  in  1826, 
vases  with  olives  still  swimming  in  oil.  The  fruit  retained 
its  flavour,  and  the  oil  burnt  well. 

In  Herculaneum  also  olives  have  been  found  in  a  vessel, 
the  upper  part  of  which  was  full  of  volcanic  ashes,  the  lower 
containing  the  olives  imbedded  in  a  sediment  of  the  con- 


HOUSE  OF  THE  TRAGIC  POET. 


385 


sistence  of  butter.  In  form  and  size  they  resemble  Spanish 
olives.  Some  of  them  still  retain  the  stalk.  The  stones  are 
shorter  and  thicker  than  in  the  varieties  now  cultivated,  and 
the  longitudinal  channelling  is  more  determined.  Their 
colour  is  black,  mixed  with  small  particles  of  green,  which 
are  recognized  by  a  strong  magnifier  to  belong  to  the  lichens 
which  are  generally  produced  on  organic  substances  during 
putrefaction.  These  were  not  apparent  when  first  discovered, 
but  the  action  of  the  air  in  a  very  few  hours  produced  an 
alteration  on  their  surface.  They  are  still  soft,  and  have  a 
strong  rancid  odour  and  a  greasy  taste,  which  leaves  a 
pricking  and  astringent  sensation  on  the  tongue ;  and  they 
are  so  light  as  to  swim  in  water,  which  is  a  mark  of  a  bad 
olive. 

The  whole  of  the  island  northward  of  the  poet's  house  is 
occupied,  first  by  the  Fullonica,  then  by  the  Houses  of  the 
Great  and  Little  Fountains.  Of  these  two  houses,  the  first 
is  of  considerable  size  and  pretensions,  but  part  of  its  area 
is  occupied  by  a  small  separate  habitation,  which  com- 
municates with,  and  appears  to  belong  to,  the  Fullonica.  A 
handsome  entrance  in  the  Street  of  Mercury  leads  into  a 
spacious  atrium  of  fifty  feet  by  forty,  with  the  usual  distribu- 
tion of  alae  and  tablinum.  The  peristyle  contains  only  three 
columns  of  a  debased  Corinthian  order ;  but  to  make  amends, 
it  has  that  which  gave  its  name  to  the  house,  and  the  discovery 
of  which  excited  an  unusual  sensation  at  Naples — a  fountain 
of  much  more  magnitude  and  attempt  at  decoration  than  any 
other  which  had  been  discovered.  Not  that  it  possesses  any 
great  beauty,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  annexed  view,  in  which 
it  forms  the  pi'incipal  feature.  It  was  novel,  however,  and 
at  that  time  indeed  almost  unique,  the  only  thing  resembling 
it  being  in  the  adjoining  house  ;  and  in  additicm  to  this  the 
materials  are  curious,  the  whole  being  inorusted  with  a  sort 
of  mosaic,  consisting  of  vitrified  tessera3  of  difierent  colours, 
in  which  blue  predominates.  The  grand  divisions  of  the 
patterns  and  the  borders  are  formed  by  real  shells,  which 
remain  perfect  and  unchanged.  Almost  all  the  ornaments 
bear  some  reference  to  water,  consisting  principally  of 
aquatic  plants  and  birds.  On  each  side  of  the  alcove  is  a 
marble  mask,  hollowed  out,  and  intended,  it  is  conjectured, 
1o  receive  lights,  which  at  night  would  have  a  whimsical  and 

2  c 


HOUSE  OF  THE  GREAT  FOUNTAIN. 


387 


rather  ghastly  effect.  The  water  trickled  clown  a  little  flight 
of  steps  into  a  sort  of  raised  piscina,  in  the  front  of  which  is 
a  round  column,  pierced  for  a  pipe,  and  probably  intended 
for  a  jet  d'eau.  It  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  general 
negligence  of  arrangement,  that  in  this  house,  which  was 
evidently  one  of  considerable  pretensions,  nothing  is  sym- 
metrical. The  pillars  of  the  peristyle  are  not  equidistant 
from  their  antae,  and  the  fountain  is  opposite  neither  to  an 
intercolumniation,  nor  to  the  centre  of  the  opening  of  the 
tablinum. 

The  high  wall  behind  the  alcove  has  lost  the  paintings 
observable  in  the  plate  on  p.  386,  which  is  copied  from  the 
second  series  of  '  Pompeiana.'  The  plaster  fell  soon  after 
Sir  W.  Gell  had  taken  his  view.  They  presented  another  spe- 
cimen of  the  opus  topiariiim.  In  the  panels  are  birds  killing 
reptiles,  &c.,  executed  with  considerable  spirit,  and  below 
them  is  painted  a  variety  of  garden  railings.  An  upper 
line  of  i)ictures,  one  of  which  represents  a  boar-hunt,  forms 
a  sort  of  frieze. 

The  House  of  the  Smaller  Fountain  is  in  no  respect  inferior 
in  point  of  interest  to  that  which  wc  have  just  described. 
The  im2)luvium  has  two  mouths  for  cisterns,  one  of  which 
communicated  by  means  of  leaden  pipes,  still  visible,  with 


Cupid  milking  a  Goat. 

the  fountain  in  the  peristyle.  Between  the  atrium  and 
tablinum  is  a  stej^,  faced  with  a  pretty  sculpture  of  leaves 
and  flowers.  In  the  latter  apartment  there  is  a  painting  of 
Cupid  milking  a  goat,  remarkable  for  the  lively  expression  of 


388 


POMPEII. 


the  figures.  The  ala  and  other  apartments  offer  nothing  re- 
markable till  we  reach  the  little  peristyle,  which  is  surrounded 
by  a  broad  colonnade  of  only  fom-  colunms.  Here  again  we 
find  a  fountain,  very  like  that  which  we  have  above  described, 
both  in  design  and  material.  It  presents  the  same  sort  of 
alcove,  surmounted  by  a  pediment,  the  height  of  which  is 
seven  feet  seven  inches,  and  the  breadth  seven  feet.  The 
face  projects  five  feet  from  the  wall.  In  front  of  it  there 
was  a  little  sedent  bronze  fisherman,  now  in  the  Museum  at 
Naples,  which  seems,  by  the  position  of  the  hand,  to  have 
been  meant  to  hold  a  rod,  as  if  fishing  in  the  piscina,  which 
had  in  the  centre  a  little  column  bearing  a  bird  which  spouted 
water ;  but  whether  the  said  bird  was  a  dove  or  a  goose,  is  a 
matter  on  which  authorities  disagree.  On  the  right  side  was 
a  caryatis  and  a  sleeping  fisherman,  both  in  marble,  but 
these  have  been  removed.  It  should  seem  that  there  was  a 
mask  in  the  centre  of  the  alcove  which  spouted  water. 
Besides  the  leaden  pipes  which  communicated  with  the 
cistern  of  the  atrium,  the  brass  cocks  still  remain,  by  which 
the  water  could  be  tm-ned  on  and  off  at  pleasure,  as  in  modern 
fountains.  On  the  walls  of  this  court  there  are  three  land- 
scapes, differing  in  character  from  anything  yet  found  in 
Pompeii.  We  give  one  of  them  as  a  specimen  :  it  represents 
a  farmhouse,  with  domestic  animals :  on  the  left,  leaning 
against  the  wall,  is  the  yoke  for  oxen.  At  the  bottom  is  a 
group  of  figures,  one  of  whom  seems  to  have  just  brought  in 
a  naked  infant :  it  is  conjectured  that  the  discovery  and 
adoption  of  CEdipus  by  the  shepherd  of  Polybus,  or  some 
similar  event  is  here  depicted.  One  of  the  other  joictures  re- 
presents a  seaport,  with  its  moles,  boats,  villas,  and  other 
buildings.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  mole  is  built  upon 
arches,  a  method  of  construction  often  represented  upon 
ancient  medals,  and  intended  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of 
mud,  by  leaving  apertui-es  for  the  current  to  scorn'  out  the 
interior.  It  was  found  that  by  suspending  floodgates 
vertically  from  the  piers,  the  agitation  of  the  waves  was 
checked  enough  to  seciu-e  vessels  riding  in  the  interior.  The 
horizon  is  very  high  in  the  picture,  as  is  usual,  and  the  blue 
of  the  sea  and  sky  is  nearly  the  same.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  this  may  be  a  view  of  some  place  on  the  coast. 

Two  rooms,  one  called  a  triclinium,  the  rather  an  exedra, 


HOUSE  OF  THE  LITTLE  FOUNTAIN. 


389 


or  liall  for  company,  open  into  the  portico.  The  former  is 
painted  in  imitation  of  brickwork  the  latter  contains 
pictures  of  game  and  hunting.  Around  the  peristyle  and 
atrium  the  usual  allotment  of  sleeping-rooms  is  observable. 
This  house  has  two  staircases,  and  therefore  must  have  had 
an  upper  floor  ;  and  it  is  rather  remarkable  that  it  possesses 
a  second  entrance,  which  gave  access  to  the  peristyle  and 


Farmyard  Scene. 


private  apartments  without  passing  through  the  atrium.  At 
the  corner  of  this  house,  in  the  Street  of  Mercury,  is  the 
fountain  of  Mercury,  on  which  the  head  and  caducous  of  the 
god  are  rudely  sculptured.  On  an  opposite  wall  is  painted 
a  figure  of  the  same  knavish  deity,  running  away  with  a 
stolen  purse.  About  this  spot  five  skeletons  were  found, 
with  various  coins,  bracelets,  and  rings  about  them. 


390 


POMPEII. 


Tlie  island  lying  to  the  north  of  that  just  described,  and 
between  it  and  the  city  wall,  contains  two  noticeable  houses, 
the  House  of  Adonis  and  that  of  Apollo.  The  House  of 
Adonis,  w^hich  lies  in  the  middle  of  the  insula,  and  has  its 
entrance  in  the  Street  of  Mercury,  derives  its  name  from  a 
picture,  wdth  figures  of  a  colossal  size,  representing  Adonis 
wounded  and  expiring  in  the  arms  of  Venus.  Other  pictures 
are  the  toilet  of  Hermaphroditus,  a  sleeping  Bacchus,  &c. 

Srtill  more  remarkable  is  the  House  of  Apollo,  lying 
northwards  of  the  House  of  Adonis,  close  to  the  city  w^alls, 
and  also  entered  from  the  Street  of  Mercury.  The  name 
was  derived  from  some  paintings  of  Apollo,  and  especially 
from  a  little  bronze  statue  of  the  hermaphrodite  Apollo, 
found  in  a  niche  of  the  tablinum,  and  now  in  the  Museum. 
In  an  opposite  niche  w^as  the  hind  of  Diana  foUow^ed  by  a 
young  fawn.  On  the  two  lateral  w^alls  of  the  same  apart- 
ment are  small  pictures,  the  subject  of  one  of  which  is 
Adonis  reposing  wdth  a  little  Cupid,  and  of  the  other  the 
toilet  of  Venus.  There  are  also  some  medallion  heads.  On 
the  wall  of  the  atrium  is  a  picture  representing  the  course  of 
the  sun  through  the  zodiac;  a  figure  of  Apollo  with  rays 
round  his  head,  holding  a  whip  in  the  right  hand,  and  in  the 
left  a  globe.  The  w^alls  of  some  of  the  apartments  are 
adorned  with  arabesque  paintings  and  ornaments  in  stucco. 
In  the  second  court,  or  peristyle,  w^hich,  however,  has  no 
columns,  is  a  fountain  of  a  somewhat  bizarre  kind.  In  the 
middle  is  a  pyramid,  on  the  top  of  which  stood  a  little 
statue,  now  in  the  Museum,  holding  under  its  arm  a  goose, 
from  the  mouth  of  w^hich  the  water  issued,  falling  down  four 
little  marble  staircases  on  each  of  the  sides  of  the  pyramid. 
The  wall  under  w^hich  the  fountain  lies  has  a  large  painting 
representing  Diana  standing  on  a  pedestal  in  the  middle  of  a 
little  basin  or  fountain,  in  w^hich  ducks  are  swimming.  The 
basin  is  surrounded  wdth  a  grove  of  orange  and  other  trees, 
filled  wdth  birds  of  splendid  plumage. 

On  the  right  of ,  this  court  is  a  kind  of  a/a,  communicating 
with  the  adjoining  xystus,  and  having  four  small  chambers, 
one  of  which  has  a  handsome  marble  pavement.  There  is 
a  vestibule  containing  a  staircase,  and  also  a  kitchen  with  an 
oven,  and  a  small  lararium,  mth  the  usual  painting  of  serpents 
and  a  priest  making  a  libation.    Before  it  is  the  little  stone 


HOUSE  OF  APOLLO. 


391 


altar  consecrated  to  Fornax.*  At  the  bottom  of  the  court 
is  an  exedra,  with  a  threshold  of  oriental  alabaster,  and  a 
pavement  formed  by  an  assemblage  of  the  most  precious 
marbles. 

On  the  right  of  the  court  some  steps  descend  to  the 
xystus.  It  is  three  or  four  feet  below  the  level  of  the  court, 
but  a  terrace  runs  round  three  sides  of  it  of  the  same  height 
as  the  court.  The  walls  of  the  terrace  are  covered  with  some 
not  very  well  executed  paintings  of  trees,  birds,  and  several 
large  female  figures  resembling  Caryatides.  At  the  bottom 
of  this  terrace  on  the  left  is  a  handsomely-decorated  bed- 
chamber, considered  however  by  some  authorities  to  be  a 
bath.  The  outward  wall  has  a  somewhat  rude  painting  of  a 
landscape,  with  Bacchanalian  figures,  and  on  the  left  a  man 
driving  an  ass.  The  other  wall,  in  which  is  the  entrance, 
has  a  rather  brilliant  mosaic,  representing  Ulysses  discovering 
Achilles  at  the  court  of  Lycomedes.  On  the  ground,  between 
the  two  heroes,  is  a  shield,  with  the  device  of  Chiron 
instructing  Achilles.  The  interior  of  the  apartment  is 
richly  decorated  with  paintings,  on  a  blue  ground,  represent- 
ing various  deities,  with  columns  and  other  scraps  of  archi- 
tecture. Above  is  an  undecorated  frieze,  which,  from  some 
remains,  seems  to  have  been  covered  with  a  drapery,  over 
which  was  a  stucco  cornice. 

Three  steps  lead  from  this  apartment  to  the  lower  level  of 
the  xystus,  in  the  middle  of  wliich  is  a  round  marble  basin 
inclosed  in  a  square  compartment.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
xystus  are  the  remains  of  a  room  or  saloon  12  or  14  feet 
square,  paved  with  mosaic,  and  supported  by  six  columns. 
In  the  wall  are  three  niches  for  statues,  the  middle  one  of 
which  has  a  vaulted  summit,  in  wliich  remains  of  mosaic  and 
shells  may  still  be  seen.  It  would  be  difiicult  to  say  to  what 
purpose  this  building  was  applied.  Some  call  it  a  triclinium, 
but  it  has  not  the  usual  shape  of  that  apartment,  and  it  must 
have  been  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  kitclien. 

To  the  east  of  the  Street  of  Mercury,  two  narrow  streets 
running  parrallel  with  it  from  the  walls  of  the  town  to  the 
Street  of  Fortune  are  intersected  in  the  middle  by  another 
narrow  street  running  from  w^est  to  east,  thus  forming  four 


*  Breton,  Pompeia,  p.  272. 


392  POMPEII. 

insulae  resembling  those  already  described.  One  of  tlic 
southernmost  of  these  insulae  is  wholly  occupied  by  the 
House  of  the  Faun,  remarkable  for  its  size  and  beauty.  We 


insert  an  engraving  of  it.  It  was  discovered  about  the  time 
when  the  first  edition  of  this  work  was  preparing  for  the 
press,  in  October,  1830,  and  excavated  in  that  and  the  two 


HOUSE  OF  THE  FAUN. 


C93 


following  years.*  It  abuts  on  the  nortli  side  of  tlie  Street 
of  Fortune,  just  beyond  the  Temple  of  Fortune,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  way.  On  the  pavement  in  front  of  the  entrance 
is  inscribed  the  word  Have  (ave),  in  letters  of  coloured  marble 
incrusted  in  opus  Signinum,  The  prothyrum  is  divided  into 
two  unequal  portions  by  a  doorway  and  two  steps,  the 
smaller  portion  being  towards  the  street.  The  second 
portion  ascends  towards  the  atrium,  and  is  paved  with  small 
triangular  pieces  of  variously-coloured  marbles.  At  the  top 
of  the  walls  on  either  side  are  miniature  representations  in 
stucco  of  the  colonnade  of  a  temple.  'J'he  walls  of  the 
atrium  were  also  covered  with  stucco  painted  to  resemble 
marble.  The  impluvium,  lined  with  marble,  occupies  the 
middle  of  the  area.  On  a  little  base  on  one  of  its  sides 
was  found  the  bronze  statuette  of  the  Dancing  Faun,  now 
in  the  Museum  at  Naples,  from  which  the  house  derives  its 
name.  We  have  already  given  a  description  of  this  figure  in 
a  preceding  page,  accompanied  with  an  engraving,  j 

The  Tuscan  atrium,  which  is  about  36  feet  broad  and  39 
deep,  is  as  usual  surrounded  with  bedchambers  and  alaB  ;  but, 
what  is  seldom  or  never  found  elsewhere,  a  door  on  the  right 
opens  into  another,  but  somewhat  smaller  atrium,  having  also 
an  entrance  from  the  Street  of  Fortune.  At  the  sides  of,  and 
between  these  two  atria  are  four  shops,  of  which  that  at  the 
western  corner  communicates  with  another  smaller  room 
behind.  These  shops,  as  well  as  that  on  the  right  of  the 
principal  entrance,  have,  or  had,  doors  communicating  with  the 
atrium,  a  circumstance  which  seems  to  show  that  the  master 
of  the  house  must  have  been  concerned  in  the  trade  carried 
on  in  them.  From  the  number  of  amphorae  found  on  his 
premises,  as  well  as  several  Bacchic  emblems,  he  was 
probably  a  wine  merchant.  At  the  bottom  of  the  fii'st 
atrium  is  the  tablinum,  having  an  apartment  on  each  side 
of  it,  and  a  corridor  or  fauces  leading  into  the  peristyle. 
This  is  of  larger  dimensions  than  usual,  occupying  nearly  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  two  atria,  and  being  thus,  contrary  to 
what  is  commonly  found,  longer  in  its  breadth — if  such  an  ex- 
pression may  be  allowed — than  in  its  depth.  At  the  back  and 
in  the  right  side  of  this  peristyle  are  other  apartments.  The 
furthest  of  these  on  the  right  has  two  or  three  windows,  and 

*  Pomp.  Antiq,  Hist.,  t.  ii.  p.  240,  seq. 
t    ee  p.  352. 


394  POMPEII. 

at  a  considerable  height  in  the  wall,  a  little  niche,  or  sedicula, 
containing  an  altar.  This  part  of  the  building  may  also  be 
entered  from  the  second  atrium,  or  that  on  the  right. 

At  the  extremity  of  the  whole  ground-plan  is  a  large 
quadrangular  garden,  surrounded  with  columns  forming  a 


Acratus  on  a  Panther. 


portico.  On  the  left-hand  side  of  this  portico  may  be  seen 
about  a  hundred  amphoras  for  wine,  still  partially  covered 
with  lapillo.  They  are  now  filled  with  the  same  substance, 
the  heat  of  the  ashes  having  burnt  away  the  corks  or  stoppers. 

But  what  rendered  this  house  remarkable,  even  more  than 
its  size  and  beauty,  was  the  richness  of  its  furniture  and 


HOUSE  OF  THE  FArX. 


395 


decorations,  and  especially  of  its  mosaics.  In  an  apartment 
in  the  middle  of  the  j)eristyle  was  found  the  famous  mosaic 
of  the  battle  of  Issus,  now  in  the  Museum  at  Naples,  which 
we  have  ali-eady  described.  The  threshold  of  one  of  the 
doors  leading  into  the  atrium  had  also  a  mosaic,  imique  both 
for  its  execution  and  for  its  state  of  preservation.  It  is  about 
nine  and  a  half  feet  long  by  nearly  two  broad,  and  displays 
a  grand  festoon  of  flowers  and  fruits,  with  tragic  masks  and 
tympana.  Jn  another  apartment  was  the  beautiful  mosaic  of 
Acratus,  mounted  on  a  panther,  of  which  we  annex  a  plate. 
These  have  been  removed  to  the  Neapolitan  Museum  but 
two  or  three  mosaics  still  remain  in  situ.  One  of  these  in  a 
room  in  the  peristyle,  representing  a  large  lion,  is  very  much 
damaged.  A  smaller  mosaic  in  one  of  the  al^e  is  in  a  better 
state  of  preservation.  It  represents  three  doves  and  a  casket, 
from  which  one  of  the  doves  is  stealing  a  pearl  necklace. 


In  the  tablinum  of  this  house  was  found  the  skeleton  of  a 
woman,  whose  attitude  vividly  recalls  one  of  those  agonizing 
scenes  which  characterized  the  last  days  of  Pompeii.  She 
appears  to  have  attemj)ted  to  escape,  but  driven  back  by  the 
overwhelming  shower  of  ashes,  to  have  taken  refuge  in  the 
tablinum,  after  throwing  on  the  pavement  all  her  ornaments. 


396 


POMPEII. 


lier  mundiis  mulithris.  The  a23artment,  liovrever,  atforded  no 
secure  shelter.  The  flooring  of  the  room  above  began  to  fall 
in,  and  her  uplifted  arms  betray  an  attempt  to  support  the 
superincumbent  mass  which  crushed  her.  In  an  adjoining 
room  were  other  skeletons,  among  them  that  of  an  old  man. 
Among  the  jewellery  found,  which  had  probably  belonged 
to  the  woman,  were  two  gold  bracelets  of  a  serpentine  form, 
each  weighing  a  pound ;  several  gold  rings  with  engraved 
stones,  one  of  which  represented  Hercules  lifting  his  club 
against  a  serpent  wound  roimd  a  tree,  and  figures  of  the  three 
flying  Hesperides.  On  one  with  a  cornelian  was  engraved  a 
very  fine  head  of  Atalanta  .* 

In  the  insula  to  the  north  of  the  House  of  the  Faun 
is  that  of  the  Labyrinth,  which  derives  its  name  from  a 
mosaic,  in  one  of  the  rooms  of  the  gynecfeum,  representing 
Theseus  slaying  the  Minotaur  in  the  Cretan  labryinth.  The 
Athenian  virgins,  the  destined  prey  of  the  monster,  are  seen 
in  attitudes  of  fear  and  despair,  while  on  the  ground  are  the 
skeletons  of  those  whom  the  Minotaur  has  devoured.  This 
house  is  among  the  finest  in  Pompeii.  It  has  two  atria,  one 
Tuscan,  the  other  tetrastyle,  with  handsome  Corinthian 
columns.  On  the  right-hand  side  of  the  latter  were  found 
the  remains  of  a  strong  box,  ornamented  with  heads  in 
bronze  and  a  meander  j)attern,  and  bronze  nails  round 
the  lid.  A  corridor  leads  into  a  peristyle  having  thirty 
stuccoed  columns.  In  one  of  the  angles  of  the  peristyle  was 
a  bronze  bath,  the  only  one  of  the  kind  yet  discovered  in 
Pompeii.  The  skeleton  of  a  woman,  with  her  jewels,  was 
also  found  in  this  garden,  at  a  height  of  six  or  seven  feet  from 
the  ground.  After  surmounting  many  obstacles  in  her 
attempt  to  escape,  her  strength  seems  to  have  failed  her,  and 
she  fell,  smothered  by  the  still  descending  volcanic  shower. 

In  the  island  opposite  to  that  just  described,  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Street  of  Mercury  and  close  to  the  triumphal  arch, 
is  a  house  known  by  the  various  names  of  Ceres,  of  the 
Bacchante,  of  the  Ship,  and  more  commonly  of  Zephyrus  and 
Flora.  The  last  name  was  derived  from  a  large  picture,  now 
removed  to  the  Museum,  containing  a  number  of  figures, 
which  is  called  the  marriage  of  Zephyrus  and  Flora,  the 
Dream  of  Ehea,  and  several  other  names.    It  represents  a 


*  Fiorelli,  Pomp.  Antiq.  Hid.,  vol.  ii.  p.  248. 


398 


POMPEII. 


winged  figure,  conducted  by  Cupids  or  genii,  approaching  a 
female  sleeping  on  the  ground.  Several  other  allegorical 
figures  are  introduced.    The  composition  and  drawing  are 


Painting  of  Jupiter,  from  the  House  of  Zephyrus  and  Flora. 


not  good,  and  hardly  merit  a  more  particular  description. 
The  atrium  is  sufficiently  preserved  to  show  that  this 
d.wellin£5  was  at  least  two  stories  high.    Indeed  the  walls  are 


HOUSE  or  CERES. 


399 


among  the  loftiest  in  Pompeii,  and  are  decorated  in  such  a 
way  as  to  give  the  room  the  appearance  of  being  two  stories 
in  height.  The  gCxieral  effect  of  this  atrium  is  very  unlike 
that  of  other  houses  in  the  town.  It  is  represented  in  the 
plate  on  p.  397,  which  is  one  of  those  copied  from  the  second 
series  of  '  Pompeia:  \a.'  In  one  of  the  rooms  were  found  the 
remains  of  wheels,  of  exactly  the  same  construction  as  those 
now  in  use.  In  the  front  of  the  view,  which  is  taken  looking 
towards  the  vestibule,  is  a  slab  of  marble  covering  the  mouth 
of  a  cistern.  In  this  atrium  several  beautiful  paintings  have 
been  found.  Among  them  a  figure  of  Jupiter,  in  a  con- 
temjjlative  attitude,  the  eagle  at  his  feet,  and  his  golden 
sceptre  in  his  hand.  His  head  is  surrounded  with  the 
nimbus,  or  glory.  The  throne  and  footstool  are  gold, 
ornamented  with  precious  stones ;  the  former  is  partly 
covered  by  the  green  cloth.  The  gcd's  mantle  is  violet- 
coloured,  lined  with  azure. 

Behind  the  house  of  Zephyrus  and  Flora  is  the  Casa  dell' 
Ancora,  or  House  of  the  Anchor,  so  called  from  a  black  and 
white  mosaic  in  the  prothyrum  re2u-esenting  an  anchor.  It 
is  also  sometimes  called  the  House  of  Amymone  and  Neptune, 
from  a  mediocre  picture  in  an  apartment  on  the  right.  There 
is  nothing  in  this  house  requiring  a  particular  description. 


Tainting  in  the  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet. 


400 


POilPEII. 


Clirrkle  B.ir;  from  a  picture  in  Pumpeii. 

CHAPTEPt  YIII. 

HOUSES  OF  CASTOR  AND  POLLUX,  THE  CENTAUR,  AND 
MEL  EAGER,  ETC. 

Ox  the  eastern  side  of  the  Street  of  Mercury,  and  to  the 
northward  of  that  island  Yvhioli  we  have  just  described,  are 
three  remarkable  hou.<es,  lying  contiguous  to  one  another. 
These  have  been  named  the  House  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  the 
House  of  the  Centaiu*,  and  the  House  of  Meleager. 

The  House  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  also  called  the  House  of 
the  Qu83stor,  is  the  most  southern  of  the  three,  and  was  the 
earliest  discovered,  that  is,  between  April  1828  and  May 
1829.  The  name  given  to  it  by  the  ciceroni  of  Pompeii 
must  not  be  regarded  as  any  certain  evidence  of  the  owner's 
rank.  It  is  derived  merely  from  the  circumstance  of  two 
large  chests  of  considerable  beauty  and  richness  of  ornament 


HOUSE  OF  CASTOR  AND  POLLUX. 


401 


having  been  found  in  the  public  part  of  the  house,  which  are 
supposed  to  have  been  meant  to  receive  the  moneys  paid  in 
on  account  of  the  revenue.  There  must  of  course  have  been 
some  superior  officer  of  the  revenue  in  Pompeii  to  receive 
the  port  dues,  which  in  a  place  of  such  traffic  must  have 
been  considerable,  as  well  as  other  taxes,  on  the  land,  the 
transfer  of  property,  and  the  various  other  miscellaneous 


Kustic  work  and  cornices,  from  the  House  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 

branches  of  the  Eoman  revenue.  Such  an  officer,  whether  a 
qujcstor  or  not,  must  have  been  a  person  of  wealth  and  trust. 
When,  therefore,  we  find  in  an  extensive  and  elegant  house, 
and  in  the  public  part  of  it,  where  clients  and  others  were 
accustomed  to  assemble  for  the  despatch  of  business,  two 
chests,  in  strength,  magnificence  of  construction,  and  size, 
much  beyond  that  required  for  the  traffic  of  a  private 


402 


POMPETI. 


individual,  the  conjecture  is  not  improbable  that  tbey  were 
intended  for  tlie  receipt  of  the  public  revenue,  and  tliat  the 
principal  officer  in  that  branch  of  the  public  service  resided 
here.  The  house  is  otherwise  named  the  House  of  the 
Dioscuri,  or  sons  of  Jupiter,  from  two  pictures  of  Castor  and 
Pollux  in  the  vestibule.  It  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  richest 
and  most  remarkable  yet  discovered.  The  front  projects 
upon  the  Street  of  Mercury,  and  forms  one  of  the  corners 
of  a  quadrivium,  or  place  where  four  streets  meet.  It  is 
composed  of  two  parts  communicating  with  each  other,  each 
of  which  has  its  separate  entrance  from  the  above-named 
street.  That  to  the  right  is  the  largest  and  the  most 
omamented,  and  seems  to  have  been  meant  for  the  use  of  the 
family ;  the  other  part  being  appropriated  to  servants  and 
offices. 

The  ground-plan  is  delineated  in  the  annexed  cut.  The 
facade  is  rich  and  ornamented  with  more  than  usual  care,  the 
walls  being  worked  in  rustic  with  fine  white  marble  stucco, 
and  each  block  edged  with  an  embossed  border  formed  by 
stamjjing  the  wet  plaster  with  a  mould — a  cheap  and  rapid 
way  of  producing  a  rich  effect.  The  narrow  channels  which 
divide  the  blocks  are  painted  blue.  The  cornice  also  which 
surmounted  the  principal  door,  being  first  roughly  carved  in 
the  tufa  of  Nocera,  was  stuccoed,  and  the  stucco  moulded  in 
a  similar  manner.  No  high  relief  could  be  produced  thus  ; 
and  to  give  more  effect,  the  intermediate  spaces  between 
them  have  been  coloured  red,  black,  and  blue,  so  as,  by  the 
apparent  depth  of  shadow,  to  23roduce  an  appearance  of  greater 
elevation  than  the  projections  possess. 

1.  Street  of  Mercury.  2.  Principal  entrance.  U^^on  one 
of  the  jambs  of  the  doorway  was  painted  a  Mercury  with  a 
large  purse  in  his  hand,  in  the  act  of  running.  Here  we 
may  pause  to  consider  the  rich  and  varied  persj)ective  of  the 
interior —where  the  Corinthian  peristyle  with  its  twelve 
columns,  and  fountain  in  the  centre  of  the  impluvium, 
beyond  it  the  tablinum,  rich  with  paintings,  and  in  the 
further  distance  the  sedicula,  or  shrine  of  the  tutelary  deity 
of  the  house,  combined  to  furnish  a  coup-d'oeil  of  more  than 
ordinary  magnificence.  3.  Vestibule,  paved  with  o^pus  Sig- 
ninum.  The  walls  are  divided  into  compartments  principally 
coloured  red  and  yellow,  and  painted  very  beautifully  vrith 


HOUSE  OF  CASTOR  AND  POLLUX. 


403 


grotesque  designs.  Upon  either  side  were  spirited  paintings 
of  Castor  and  Pollux — tlie  Dioscuri,  from  whom  the  house 


Ground-plan  of  the  House  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 

derives  one  of  its  names — reining  in  their  horses.  The  door 
on  the  right-hand  side  leads  into  a  small  room,  4,  probably 


404 


POMPEII. 


occupied  by  the  porter,  wheru  there  are  traces  of  a  stair- 
case, 5.  6.  Sewer.  7.  Atrium.  It  corresponds  with  the  Corin- 
thian atrium  of  Vitruvius,  and  is  one  of  the  few  examples 
which  remain  of  that  magnificent  style  of  building.  The 
roof  was  supported  by  twelve  columns  placed  around  the  im- 
pluvium,  formed  of  the  tufa  of  Nocera,  and  coated  with 
stucco.  They  are  about  twelve  feet  high  and  one  foot  eight 
inches  in  diameter.  The  lower  half  of  the  shaft  is  coloured 
red,  and  the  flutings  are  filled  up  ;  the  upper  part  is  white. 
The  cornice  of  the  atrium  is  remarkable  for  containing  the 
dentils  of  the  Ionic  order,  while  the  capitals  are  formed  by 
plain  rectangular  plinths — a  singular  and  unpleasing  novelty, 
for  which  it  is  not  easy  to  account  in  a  house  distinguished 
in  general  for  the  richness  of  its  decorations.  Like  that  of 
the  entrance,  the  pavement  is  of  opus  Signinum,  The  implu- 
vium,  8,  was  ornamented  by  a  small  marble  fountain,  9, 
prettily  designed,  representing  a  water-plant,  upon  which 
reptiles,  such  as  frogs  and  lizards,  are  carved.  The  flow  of 
water  was  regulated  by  a  bronze  key.  The  basin  itself  is 
but  a  few  inches  deep,  so  that  when  the  water  was  not  turned 
on,  persons  might  walk  across  it  without  difiiculty.  In  the 
central  intercolumniation,  fronting  the  tablinum,  there  is 
what  seems  to  be  the  base  of  an  altar,  10,  probably  appro- 
priated to  the  w^orshij)  of  the  Lares,*  and  on  the  left-hand 
side,  11,  the  customary  puteal,  or  well-cover.  This  is  made 
of  a  white  calcareous  stone,  in  which  the  constant  friction  of 
the  cords  used  in  raising  water  has  wwn  deep  channels.  The 
walls  of  the  atrium  remain  perfect  nearly  to  their  original 
elevation,  as  is  j)roved  by  the  existence  of  the  capitals  of  the 
Corinthian  pilasters. 

On  the  left-hand  side  of  the  atrium  in  the  corner  next  the 
tablinum,  the  two  large  chests,  marked  12  and  13,  w^ere 
found,  which  have  given  a  name  to  the  house. f  Each  of  them 
was  raised  upon  a  solid  plinth,  encrusted  with  marble.  They 
were  made  of  w^ood,  lined  wdth  plates  of  brass,  and  on  the 
exterior  bound  with  iron,  and  decorated  with  handles,  bosses, 
and  a  variety  of  other  ornaments,  many  of  which  had  fallen 

*  More  probably,  as  Ovei  beck  remarks,  the  base  of  a  statue. 

f  But  without  much  reason,  as  similar  chests  have  been  found  in  otlier 
houses,  while  the  figure  of  Mercury  seems  to  denote  the  house  of  a 
merchant. — Ed. 


406 


POMPEII. 


off  by  rust  and  tlie  decay  of  tlie  wood,  and  were  found  lying 
beneath.  The  locks,  handles,  and  other  ornaments  were 
made  of  bronze.  When  found,  the  bottom  of  these  chests 
was  formed  merely  of  several  parallel  bars  of  iron,  which  of 
course  supported  a  planking,  now  decayed.  Through  the 
interstices  of  one  of  them,  marked  12,  forty-five  gold  and 
five  silver  coins  had  fallen,  and  were  found  at  the  time  of  exca- 
vation, so  as  to  afford  a  clue  to  the  use  of  these  remarkable 
chests.*  The  greater  part  of  the  contents  however  had  been 
extracted  in  old  times ;  evidently  by  some  person  who  knew 
their  value,  and  was  at  the  labour  of  digging  in  search  of 
their  buried  treasure.  Owing,  however,  to  some  slight  error 
in  his  measurements,  he  got  into  the  adjoining  room,  22,  and 
greatly  increased  the  difficulty  of  his  task,  by  thus  rendering 
it  necessary  to  cut  through  the  wall  of  the  atrium,  and  to 
extract  the  money  through  a  small  hole  in  the  chest. 

The  atrium  is  beautifully  painted  in  the  same  style  as  the 
vestibule,  with  arabesque  designs  upon  red  and  yellow 
grounds.  Upon  the  plinth  are  flowers,  reptiles,  and  birds 
pecking  at  fruit.  Above  it  are  painted  many  excellent  figures. 
We  may  notice  among  them  Jupiter,  seated  on  his  throne, 
and  crowned  by  Victory;  Fortune  holding  a  rudder,  her 
usual  emblem ;  Bacchus  with  the  thyrsus,  and  beside  him  a 
little  Faun  standing  on  tip-toe,  and  endeavouring  to  catch 
some  drops  which  fall  from  a  bowl  that  the  God  of  W^ine 
hi)lds  reversed,  while  a  panther,  fawning  like  a  dog,  pulls  at 
the  end  of  his  cloak."]"  The  apartment  has  but  one  ala  or 
wing,  14,  round  which  there  runs  a  dwarf  wall  or  plinth,  15, 
which  served  as  a  seat.  It  is  probable,  from  the  position  of 
the  chests,  that  those  who  received  or  paid  the  public  money 
were  stationed  here.  16.  A  large  recess  containing  a  door 
which  leads  into  the  great  court  of  the  piscina.  Among  the 
pictures  in  this  part  of  the  atrium  were  Ceres,  Apollo  sound- 
ing the  lyre,  Saturn  with  his  scythe,  and  here  and  there 
landscaj)es  containing  small  figures,  not  altogether  dissimilar 
in  style  to  those  of  Nicholas  Poussin.  Two  of  them  represent 
scenes  near  the  sea-shore,  with  hilly  undulating  ground, 

*  See  Pomp.  Ant.  Hist.,  t.  ii.  p.  214  (Julv  8th,  1828). 

t  We  may  here  say,  once  for  all,  that,  the  visitor  will  now  look  in  vain  for 
many  of  these  and  other  paintings  described  in  the  accounts  of  early  exca- 
vations.— Ed. 


HOUSE  OF  CASTOR  AND  POLLUX. 


407 


verdant  to  the  marg'n  of  tlie  sea,  witli  incidents  appropriate 
to  the  scenery.  In  one  is  told  the  story  of  Perseus  contend- 
ing with  the  kinsmen  of  Andromeda,  who  opposed  his  marriage 
with  the  princess  after  he  had  delivered  her  from  the  sea- 
monster.  In  the  other,  Jupiter  is  represented  carrying  oif 
Europa,  and  several  beautiful  Cupids  appear  in  different 
parts  of  the  picture.  The  wdiole  atriuni,  exclusive  of  tlie 
recess,  is  about  forty  feet  square,  and  the  open  space  in  the 
centre  is  about  seventeen  feet  in  each  of  its  dimensions. 

Various  rooms  of  various  uses  surround  the  atrium,  some 
lighted  from  the  street  by  a  window,  as  17,  19,  20,  others 
entirely  dependent  uj)on  the  atrium,  and  lighted  imperfectly 
by  a  window  or  lattice  placed  above  the  door.  17  is  conjec- 
tured to  have  been  the  apartment  of  the  atriensis.  It  is  deco- 
rated in  the  same  style  and  with  the  same  elegance  as  the 
atrium.  The  closet,  19,  was  probably  a  storeroom.  In  20 
there  are  two  small,  but  remarkably  hue  pictures ;  one  of 
Diana  descending  from  heaven,  attracted  by  the  beauty  of 
Endymion,  with  two  nymphs  in  the  background ;  the  other 
of  Narcissus.  There  are  other  pictures  of  Bacchantes,  flying 
figures,  &c.  The  pavem.ent  is  of  opus  Signimnn,  21  and  22 
contain  nothing  worth  notice  except  that  in  the  latter  there 
is  a  mosaic  pavement.  23  is  merely  plastered  with  white 
stucco,  in  which  there  are  two  rows  of  small  holes,  apparently 
meant  for  brackets  to  support  two  tiers  of  shelves.  This 
therefore  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  storeroom,  especially 
as  bronze  and  glass  vases  were  found  in  it.  In  24  the  same 
traces  of  shelves  were  found  as  in  23,  and  a  quantity  of  pro- 
visions, such  as  nuts,  lentils,  grains,  and  figs  :  it  was  therefore 
another  storeroom.  The  thresholds  of  both  these  apartments 
are  of  white  marble,  and  in  one  of  them  the  iron  pivot  upon 
which  the  door  turned  still  remains.  25  appears  to  be  a 
plinth,  or  basement,  intended  to  receive  something,  but  of 
what  nature  is  uncertain. 

The  tablinum,  26,  is  an  apartment  of  remarkable  splendour. 
The  pavement  is  of  white  mosaic,  edged  with  a  black  border. 
The  walls  are  of  uncommon  beauty.  Each  of  them  has  in  its 
centre  a  picture  :  that  on  the  left-hand,  as  the  visitor  enters, 
represents  the  quarrel  between  Agamemnon  and  Achilles, 
and  Minerva  interfering  to  restrain  the  latter  :  that  on  the 
right,  Ulysses  discovering  Achilles  among  the  females  of  the 


408 


POMPEII. 


court  of  Lycomedes.  This  picture  has  the  appearance  of 
being  executed  originally  in  shades  of  red,  covered  afterwards 
with  transparent  tints,  through  which  the  red  ground  is 
generally  visible.  Upon  the  walls  are  painted  hangings  of 
blue  cloth  embroidered  with  gold,  with  four  groups  of  Fauns 
and  Bacchantes  worked  upon  them.  The  plinth  is  black,  and 
ornamented  with  the  usual  variety  of  arabesque  patterns,  such 
as  lions  and  centaurs  fighting,  and  Cupids  riding  in  chariots 
drawn  by  stags  and  goats.  In  another  part  figures  are  repre- 
sented coming  out  of  doors  in  a  colonnade  enriched  with 
festoons  of  fruit  and  flowers.  Not  less  worthy  of  notice  is  the 
frieze,  along  which  is  painted  a  narrow  line  of  landscapes 
with  figures,  one  of  which  is  supposed  to  represent  the  return 
of  Ulysses  to  Ithaca.  It  contains  a  sedent  figure,  with  a 
peaked,  Chinese-looking  hat  upon  his  head,  who  is  offering  a 
cup  to  another  man  in  tattered  garments,  stretched  on  the 
ground  and  playing  with  a  dog.  This  right-hand  wall,  which 
presents  a  surface  about  twenty  feet  square,  adorned  with 
almost  every  variety  of  painting  known  at  Pompeii,  is  un- 
matched for  beauty  and  brilliancy  of  effect. 

27.  Fauces,  or  passage  giving  access  to  the  garden  when 
the  tablinum  was  closed.  28.  Narrow  staircase,  probably 
leading  only  to  the  roof,  for  the  house,  judging  from  the 
slightness  of  its  walls,  can  have  had  no  upper  story.  29, 
Probably  a  bed  chamber.  It  is  painted  with  arabesques,  and 
paved  with  opus  Signinum  as  usual,  and  contains  three  pictures 
worth  notice ;  one  of  Cephalus  and  Procris,  another  of  Nar- 
cissus, and  a  third  representing  a  nymph  leading  a  child  to 
Bacchus  and  Silenus,  who  initiate  him  in  the  use  of  wine. 
The  room  on  the  other  side  of  the  tablinum,  30,  may  probably 
have  served  for  a  winter  triclinium.  It  is  lighted  by  a  large 
window  opening  on  the  garden  portico,  and  is  paved  in  black- 
and-white  mosaic.  The  disposition  of  the  paintings  is  re- 
markable. The  plinth  is  black,  relieved  by  flying  Cupids, 
admirably  executed.  Above  it  are  architectural  arabesques, 
containing  figures  of  priests,  with  paterae  and  implements  of 
sacrifice,  between  which  there  are  alternately  red  and  azure 
panels.  The  red  panels  rest  upon  a  blue  band  and  the  blue 
panels  on  a  red  band,  and  the  paintings  on  these  bands  are 
varied  according  to  their  colour.  Upon  the  red  are  ferocious 
animals  chasing  their  prey,  or  themselves  pursued  by  dogs, 


HOUSE  OF  CASTOR  AND  POLLUX. 


409 


or  throwing  themselves  into  the  water  to  quench  their  thirst ; 
on  the  blue  are  whimsical  aquatic  monsters,  such  as  a  Triton, 
with  the  body  of  a  man  and  the  tail  of  a  lobster,  who  is 
driving  a  sea-horse  surrounded  by  dolphins.  Tliree  pictures 
occupied  the  centres  of  the  three  red  compartments,  two  of 
which  are  almost  obliterated :  the  third  represents  Thetis 
dipping  Achilles  in  the  river  Styx.  In  the  blue  compartments 
there  still  remains  a  beautiful  female  playing  on  the  lyre,  and 
a  Nereid  seated  on  the  Triton's  back.  She  bears  a  shield,  and 
may  be  meant  for  Tlietis  carrying  the  armour  to  Achilles. 
The  upper  parts  of  the  walls  are  more  lightly  ornamented, 
and  painted  on  white  grounds. 


Thetis  dipping  Achilles  in  the  Styx. 


Through  the  tablinum  we  enter  the  peristyle,  31,  if  the 
term  may  be  applied  to  a  court  like  this,  which  has  a  colon- 
nade on  one  side  only.  The  roof  was  supported  by  five  Doric 
columns.  We  spare  the  reader  the  details  of  the  paintings 
here,  which  are  in  the  same  style  as  those  already  described  ; 
but  two  dramatic  scenes  are  w  rthy  of  notice,  which  have  been 
represented  in  Part  I.,  pp.  191,  201.  There  is  also  a  Phasdra  and 
Hippolytus  of  very  good  execution.  32.  Puteal.  33.  Garden, 
formerly  enclosed  by  a  wooden  railing,  as  is  proved  by 
vertical  channels  cut  in  the  pillars  to  the  height  of  three  feet 
six  inches,  to  receive  the  uprights.  It  seems  to  have  been 
laid  out  in  long  straight  flower-beds.    The  wall  opposite  the 


410 


POMPEII. 


tablinum  is  divided  by  engaged  pillars,  and  tlie  intermediate 
spaces  filled  with  paintings  representing  trees,  grass-plots, 
fishponds,  and  other  accessories  of  a  garden.  Immediately 
opposite  the  vestibule  is  an  altar,  35,  raised  before  an  sedicula, 
36,  which,  from  the  style  of  its  ornaments,  must  have  been 
dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Bacchus.  On  the  right  of  the 
garden  is  a  walk,  31,  covered  by  creeping  plants  trained  over 
a  trellis  supported  on  stone  blocks,  which  are  still  to  be  seen. 

At  the  other  end  of  the  portico  is  the  entrance  to  a  large 
chamber,  37,  w^hicli  from  its  size,  situation,  and  elegance, 
may  be  supposed  to  have  been  occupied  by  the  master  of  the 
house.  Most  of  the  subjects  represented  here  bear  some 
relation  to  the  chase  :  there  is  one  in  better  preservation 
than  the  rest,  w^hich  may  represent  Meleager  or  Adonis 
returned  from  hunting.  38.  Passage  leading  to  39,  a  kitchen, 
intended  probably  for  the  private  service  of  the  family,  to 
judge  from  its  unusual  position  in  the  most  elegant  and 
retired  part  of  the  house.  On  the  right-hand  is  a  sink,,  on 
the  left  a  stair,  opposite  to  which  is  the  fireplace.  Fragments 
of  a  picture  exist,  which  seem  to  have  represented  the  goddess 
Fortune ;  and  there  are  also  two  tails  of  snakes,  emblems  of 
the  tutelary  genii,  which,  as  we  have  stated  in  a  former 
chapter,  were  commonly  set  up  in  kitchens  as  a  protection 
against  robbery  or  wanton  insult.  40,  41.  Offices.  42,  43. 
Anteroom  and  bedchamber,  probably  meant  for  the  use  of 
some  upper  servant. 

Eeturning  through  the  tablinum  and  atrium,  we  enter  the 
most  splendid  apartment  of  the  house,  called  the  court  of  the 
piscina,  from  a  reservoir  of  more  than  common  dimensions. 
The  colonnade,  44,  is  formed  by  eight  columns,  four  on  each 
side,  with  angular  antae,  and  engaged  columns  at  the  corners. 
They  are  stuccoed  and  fluted,  the  lower  part  of  the  fluting 
filled  up  and  painted  red,  as  usual,  to  the  height  of  four  feet 
eight  inches.  The  diameter  at  the  base  is  one  foot  eight 
inches  ;  at  the  capital,  one  foot  four  inches ;  the  height  of 
the  shaft,  nine  feet  eleven  inches :  the  capitals  are  of  stucco, 
and  approximate  to  the  Corinthian  order.  The  whole  portico 
is  raised  upon  a  step  above  the  interior  court,  45,  and  the 
step  is  painted  red.  The  area  of  this  court  was  probably 
partly  occupied  by  flowers,  as  earth  was  found  here,  having  a 
small  reservoir,  46,  in  the  centre.     The  eastern  end  was 


412 


POMPEII. 


entirely  occupied  by  a  large  piscina,  47,  having  in  its  centre 
a  column,  through  which  the  pipe  of  a  fountain  still  passes. 
Of  this  court  we  give  a  view,  taken,  like  the  view  of  the 
atrium,  from  the  second  series  of  Sir  W.  Gell's  Pompeii.  It 
is  taken  from  within  the  exedi-a,  or  triclinium.  On  the  antae 
in  front  were  paintings  of  Perseus  and  Andi'omeda,  and  of 


Perseus  and  Andromeda. 


Medea  meditating  the  murder  of  her  children,  of  which  we 
have  given  engravings.  On  the  other  fronts  of  these  antsB 
are  also  paintings  ;  one  of  a  dwarf  leading  a  monkey,  engraved 
in  Part  1.,  p.  195  ;  the  other  a  picture  of  Hvgeia.  In  different 
parts  of  the  room  are  other  paintings  ;  one  is  a  noble  figui-e 


HOUSE  OF  CASTOR  AND  POLLUX. 


413 


of  Jupiter.  Tlie  rest  of  the  walls  is  occupied,  as  usual,  with 
a  variety  of  arabesque  and  capricious  ornaments,  upon  red, 
white,  yellow,  and  green  grounds.  This,  and  the  Corinthian 
atrium,  and  the  peristyle  of  the  house  of  Meleager,  to  be  de- 
scribed presently,  are  the  most  beautiful  apartments  yet  found 
in  Pompeii. 


Medea  meditating  tlie  Murder  of  her  Children. 

A  noble  exedra,  or  summer  triclinium,  48,  opens  on  the 
upper  end  of  the  colonnade.  Formerly  the  pavement  was 
incrusted  with  precious  marbles,  as  appears  from  the  frag- 
ments which  have  been  found,  of  those  scarce  and  beautiful 
kinds  called  rosso  and  giallo  antico,  African  marble  with 


414 


POMPEII. 


red  spots,  and  oriental  alabaster  ;  but  tbis  bigb-prized  orna- 
ment bas  been  removed,  as  is  almost  invariably  tbe  case,  by 
tbe  ancients  tbemselves.  Nearly  tbe  wbole  front  was  open 
to  tbe  court,  and  migbt  be  closed  at  pleasure  by  large  folding 
doors,  as  tbe  marble  sockets  in  wbicb  tbey  tui^ned  still  sbow. 
A  large  window  opens  on  tbe  covered  walk  beside  tbe  garden. 
The  contiguous  rooms,  49  and  50,  appear  to  be  a  bedchamber 
and  anteroom.  -Two  doors  open  from  tbe  triclinium  upon  a 
passage,  51,  leading  from  the  garden  to  tbe  servants'  apart- 
ments at  tbe  other  end  of  the  bouse,  in  which  there  is  a  back- 
door, 52,  leading  into  tbe  lane,  53.  54.  Communication  with 
tbe  offices.  55.  Entrance  to  the  offices  from  the  Street  of 
Mercury.  56.  Tuscan  atrium.  The  inferior  finish  of  this 
portion  of  the  house  shows  plainly  that  it  was  intended 
merely  for  domestic  uses.  Some  persons  have  supposed  it  a 
Jiospitium  for  the  reception  of  guests.  In  this  case  six 
strangers  might  have  been  lodged  in  the  apartments  sur- 
rounding the  atrium,  which,  with  the  exedra,  would  have  been 
common  to  all.  The  walls  are  plainly  stuccoed  white  without 
any  painting ;  the  floor,  as  usual,  is  of  opus  Signinum.  57. 
Impluvium,  executed  in  stone  roughly  chiselled.  58.  Exedi-a, 
or  hall,  painted  roughly  with  landscapes  on  a  black  ground. 
The  pavement  is  opus  Signinum  bordered  with  a  mosaic 
meander.  59.  Kitchen,  in  which  the  hearth  is  distinguishable, 
and  the  usual  domestic  gods  are  painted  above  it.  60.  Adjoin- 
ing offices.  Above  these  and  the  adjoining  rooms  traces  are 
to  be  seen  of  the  floor  of  an  upper  story,  and  the  doors  of 
communication  are  still  preserved  in  the  walls.  The  larger 
apartments,  peristyles,  atria,  &e.,  were  of  course  much  loftier 
than  was  necessary  for  the  rooms  of  servants  and  offices,  so 
that  there  might  be  two  stories  without  the  roof  of  this  por- 
tion being  higher  than  that  of  the  other.  The  other  rooms 
on  this  side  of  the  house  appear  to  have  been  appropriated  to 
servants,  or  to  have  been  used  as  storerooms,  &c.  Even 
here  the  universal  taste  for  paintings  is  shown  by  patterns 
coarsely  executed  on  red  and  yellow  grounds.  61.  Court 
from  which  the  adjoining  rooms  were  lighted.  62.  Large 
room,  the  ceiling  of  which  appears  to  have  been  supported  by 
a  central  pier,  63.  It  communicates  with  the  back  lane  by  a 
broad  doorv^ay,  large  enough  to  admit  a  cart,  and  is  conjec- 
tured to  have  been  set  apart  for  purposes  of  household  traffic, 


HOUSE  OF  CASTOK  AND  POLLUX. 


415 


416 


POMPEII. 


as  tlie  laying  in  of  provisions,  &c.,  for  which  its  size  and 
situation  seem  to  adapt  it.  The  other  numerous  apartments 
in  this  quarter  of  the  house  are  not  worth  a  minute  descrip- 
tion, being  mean  and  small,  and  apparently  suited  only  to 
the  occupation  of  slaves. 

Separated  from  the  House  of  Castor  and  Pollux  by  a  narrow 
street,  is  a  house  chiefly  remarkable  for  containing  pictures 
of  no  very  decent  description.  In  front  it  has  a  thermo- 
polium,  or  wine-shop ;  in  an  inner  chamber,  full  of  pictures 
totally  unfit  for  representation  or  description,  there  are  two 
of  inoffensive  character,  which  contain  some  curious  details 
relative  to  domestic  life.  One  of  these  represents  a  wine- 
cart,  and  shows  the  way  of  filling  the  amphorae,  or  large 
earthen  vessels  in  which  wine  was  kept.  The  clumsy  trans- 
verse yoke  by  which  the  horses  are  fastened  to  the  pole 
is  worth  attention.  Another  method  of  yoking  them,  re- 
sembling the  modern  curricle-bar,  is  represented  in  the 


Amphorae. 


head-piece  to  this  chapter.  "We  have  also  to  point  out  the 
large  skin,  occupying  the  whole  of  the  waggon,  and  supported 
by  a  framework ,  of  three  hoops.  These  minutiae  may  of 
course  be  depended  on  as  copied  from  the  implements  in  use. 
The  neck  of  the  skin  is  closed  by  a  ligature,  and  the  wine 


HOUSE  OF  CASTOR  AND  POLLUX. 


417 


is  drawn  off  through  the  leg,  which  forms  a  convenient 
spout.  Two  amphorae  may  be  observed.  They  are  pointed 
at  the  bottom^  so  that  they  might  be  stuck  into  the  ground 
and  preserved  in  an  upright  position  without  difficulty. 
Amphorae  have  been  found  several  times  thus  arranged  in  the 


Pompeian  cellars,  especially  in  the  suburban  villa,  and  in  the 
House  of  the  Faun,  where  they  may  still  be  seen  standing 
upright,  in  their  original  posture. 

The  other  picture  represents  a  drinking  scene.  Four 

2  E 


418 


POMPEII. 


figures  are  seated  round  a  tripod  table,  hardly  higher  than 
the  benches.  The  dress  of  two  of  the  figures  is  remarkable 
for  the  hoods,  which  resemble  the  capotes  worn  by  the 
Italian  sailors  and  fishermen  of  the  present  day.  They 
use  horns  instead  of  glasses.  Above  are  difierent  sorts  of 
eatables  hung  upon  a  row  of  pegs.  We  may  conclude,  from 
the  style  of  the  figures  and  of  the  accommodations  represented, 
that  the  company  which  usually  frequented  this  house  of 
entertainment  was  of  a  very  low  class.  It  is  said,  however, 
that  excavations  of  later  date  have  disclosed  some  interior 
apartments  very  superior  in  elegance  and  purity  to  those  of 
which  we  have  already  spoken.  Nearly  opposite  to  this 
house  several  skeletons  and  articles  in  gold  and  silver,  brass 
and  earthenware,  were  found  twelve  feet  above  the  ancient 
pavements.  These  must  probably  be  the  remains  of  some 
persons  who  were  suffocated  by  mephitic  vapours  while 
searching  for  valuables  among  the  ruins. 

Adjoining  to  the  House  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  and  on  the 
northern  side  of  it,  is  the  House  of  the  Centaur,  as  it  is 
commonly  called  upon  the  spot.  This  evidently  consists  of 
two  houses  thrown  into  one.  There  is  only  one  door  of 
communication  between  them.  The  consequence  is  that  there 
are  duplicates,  as  it  were,  of  all  the  apartments  ;  and  the 
mansion  contains  no  less  than  two  atria  and  three  peristyles, 
of  considerable  size  and  splendour. 

This  house,  in  appearance,  character,  and  general  plan, 
bears  so  strong  a  resemblance  to  the  House  of  the  Quaestor 
that  it  is  unnecessary,  and  might  be  tedious,  to  give  a  plan  of 
it,  and  go  through  a  minute  examination  of  the  several  rooms. 
Of  the  two  divisions,  the  northern  is  the  plainer  and  less 
handsome,  containing  the  usual  suite  of  vestibule,  atrium, 
tablinum,  and  peristyle.  The  Tuscan  atrium  contains  nothing 
remarkable.  Two  of  the  apartments  which  surround  it  have 
evidently  been  destined  for  bedchambers,  and  contain  alcoves 
raised  a  few  inches  above  the  level  of  the  floor,  where  the 
beds  were  placed.  In  one  of  them  traces  are  still  visible  on 
the  ground  where  heavy  furniture  has  been  di-awn  backwards 
and  forwards.  The  walls  are  rusticated,  and  painted  to 
resemble  slabs  of  different  marbles — a  gaudy  and  tasteless 
practice,  which  we  have  elsewhere  found  occasion  to  mention. 
The  tablinum  was  once  painted,  but  little  now  remains  of  its 


HOUSE  OF  THE  CENTAUR. 


419 


ancient  decorations.  Within  it  is  a  peristyle  supported  by- 
eight  columns.  One  of  the  angles  has  been  strengthened  by 
a  substantial  brick  pier,  erected  probably  after  the  earthquake, 
A.D.  63,  which  has  left  everywhere  its  traces,  in  the  ruin 
which  it  produced  and  in  the  subsequent  restorations. 
Beyond  is  a  triclinium,  the  most  ornamented  room  in  the 
house,  but  the  pictures  are  of  inferior  quality. 

From  this,  which  appears  to  have  been  devoted  to  the 
inferior  members  of  the  family,  we  descend,  by  three  steps 
through  a  doorway  broken  in  the  party  wall,  to  the  adjoining 
division,  which  evidently  was  at  one  time  a  separate  house, 
and  is  as  plainly  proved,  by  its  architectui-al  superiority  and 
the  number  of  pictures  and  mosaics  found  in  it,  to  have  been 
occupied  by  a  family  of  wealth  and  consideration.  Upon 
entering  by  the  above-mentioned  doorway,  the  visitor  finds 
himself  in  a  Corinthian  atrium,  supported  by  sixteen  columns 
of  somewhat  grotesque  character,  not  clearly  referable  to  any 
order,  but  bearing  some  resemblance  to  the  Doric.  The 
apartment  is  much  damaged :  it  was  once  richly  painted  w  ith 
grotesques  upon  grounds  of  various  colours.  It  communi- 
cates with  the  street  by  a  vestibule,  which  forms  a  distinct 
entrance  to  this  portion  of  the  mansion.  Communicating 
with  this  atrium  there  is  another  smaller  peristyle  on  the 
right,  which,  in  situation  and  disposition  of  the  adjoining 
apartments,  resembles  that  excavated  many  years  before  in 
the  House  of  Sallust,  and  described  under  the  title  of  the 
Gyna)ccum.  One  of  the  chambers  which  open  upon  the  atrium 
is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its'  black-and-white  mosaic 
pavement.  Beside  it  there  is  a  small  chamber  or  closet, 
which  has  no  other  opening  than  a  large  window  to  the 
atrium,  above  a  dwarf  wall  sixteen  inches  high,  covered  with 
a  marble  coping,  in  which  the  traces  of  an  iron  grating  are 
clearly  to  be  seen.  There  are  also,  on  both  sides  of  the 
aperture,  the  marks  of  locks  or  latches,  from  which  we  may 
infer  that  two  portions  of  the  grating  might  be  opened  or 
closed  at  pleasure.  The  only  explanation  which  we  can  give 
of  this  strange  apartment  is  to  suppose  that  it  was  the  cage 
of  some  wild  beast ;  though  the  chief  room  of  the  house  seems 
an  odd  place  for  such  an  inmate.* 

*  Oveileck  considers  it  to  have  been  a  sort  of  storeroom.    B.  i.  S,  305. 


420 


POMPEII. 


Comnmnicating  witli  this  atrium  is  a  tablinum,  on  the  walls 
of  which  were  painted  two  stories,  one  of  Hercules,  the  other 
of  Meleager,  the  one  from  which  the  former  name  of  the 
house  was  derived.  These  have  been  removed  to  the  National 
Museum.  The  latter  represents  the  moment  at  which  Me- 
leager presents  to  Atalanta  the  boar's  head,  and  his  uncles 


Meleager  returned  from  Hunting. 


are  about  to  take  it  from  her.  Meleager  sits  in  the  middle 
of  the  picture,  clothed  in  a  short  purple  mantle  ;  his  sword  is 
suspended  by  a  sash,  and  in  his  left  hand  are  two  javelins. 
His  head  is  turned,  as  if  listening  to  Atalanta,  who  is  leaning 
on  the  back  of  the  stone  seat  on  which  the  hero  reposes.  At 
his  feet  is  the  head  of  an  immense  wild  boar  and  his  dogs. 


HOUSE  OF  THE  CENTAUR. 


421 


Beside  him  are  his  uncles.  There  is  also  in  this  apartment 
a  black  frieze,  in  which  are  Fauns  and  Bacchantes  in  various 
attitudes,  the  beauty  of  which  excites  a  regret  that  they  are 
not  in  a  higher  state  of  preservation.  The  floor  was  mosaic, 
with  pieces  of  ditferent  coloured  marbles  let  into  it.  The 
two  pilasters  which  flank  the  entrance  to  this  apartment  are 
remarkable  for  containing  two  little  niches  painted  azure,  and 
intended  apparently  to  receive  small  statues  or  some  other 
movable  ornament.  But  the  largest  and  richest  apartment 
of  this  house  is  the  triclinium,  which  lies  beside  the  tablinum 
on  the  left,  and  is  lighted  by  a  large  wdndow  opening  upoi: 
the  garden  beyond.  In  the  centre  of  the  mosaic  pavement  is 
a  circle  three  feet  four  inches  in  diameter,  containing  a  noble 
lion  surrounded  by  Cupids,  who  are  binding  him  with  garlands, 
while  at  one  side  nymphs  or  Bacchantes  look  on.  It  is  now 
in  a  ruinous  condition.  The  peristyle  is  small.  One  circum- 
stance relating  to  it  is  worth  preserving,  because  it  proves 
that  these  small  courts  were  used  as  gardens  :  it  is  said  that 
the  remains  of  shrubs  which  had  been  planted  here  were 
found  during  the  course  of  the  excavation.  This  part  of  the 
house  is  completely  ruined,  for  a  range  of  subterranean 
chambers,  used  probably  as  cellars,  extends  beneath  it,  and 
the  vaults  having  fallen  in,  great  part  of  the  garden  and 
peristyle  has  gone  along  with  them.  The  wall  of  the  garden 
had  been  painted  in  the  style  called  in  a  former  chapter  opus 
topiarkim,  that  is  to  say,  with  views  of  gardens  ornamented 
with  railings,  fountains,  birds,  statues,  &c.  Above  these  are 
sea  views,  containing  Nereids  as  large  as  life.  One  of  the 
adjoining  rooms  is  remarkable  for  a  Doric  cornice,  supported 
by  pilasters  with  Grecian  capitals.  Another,  and  a  more 
beautiful  example,  has  been  discovered  lately  at  the  entrance 
of  a  house  opposite  to  that  which  we  are  now  describing. 
These  confirm  the  theory  which  has  been  advanced,  that  the 
Pompeian  architecture  is  originally  of  Grecian  character, 
however  varied  by  Eoman  alterations,  and  especially  by  the 
restorations  and  improvements  consequent  upon  the  great 
earthquake,  sixteen  years  before  the  inhumation  of  the  city. 

The  third  house  which  we  have  mentioned,  that  of  Meleager, 
or  the  Nereids,  was  uncovered  between  October,  1830,  and 
May,  1831,  and  has  not,  as  we  believe,  been  before  described, 
except  in  the  Neapolitan  government  publication,  called  the 


422 


POMPEII. 


Museo  Borbonico,  from  which  the  plan  and  details  here  given 
are  extracted.  It  adjoins  the  House  of  the  Centaur,  and  is 
separated  by  one  dwelling  from  the  city  walls,  from  which 
its  vestibule  is  only  some  sixty  paces  distant.  Although  not 
cne  of  the  largest,  it  is  one  of  the  handsomest  and  most 


Ground-plan  of  the  House  of  the  Nereids,  or  Meleager. 

charming  in  Pompeii.  The  front  is  covered  with  a  plain  white 
stucco,  imitating  stone,  and  resting  on  a  plinth  coloured  to 
resemble  grey  marble,  and  surmounted  by  a  red  fillet.  Even 
in  the  vestibule  we  see  promise  of  the  abundance  of  ornament 


HOUSE  OF  MELEAGEE. 


423 


whicli  the  mansion  contains.  Tlie  walls  are  divided  into 
three  compartments  :  the  lower,  forming  the  plinth,  is  black  ; 
the  centre,  red ;  the  upper,  white.  We  may  take  this 
opportunity  to  point  out  a  circumstance  which  probably  has 
already  caught  the  reader's  attention,  that  in  the  Pompeian 
houses  the  walls  are  very  frequently  divided  into  two  or 
more  horizontal  bands  or  compartments  of  different  colours ; 
and  that  then  the  darkest  colours  are  almost  always  placed 
lowest,  the  shades  becoming  lighter  as  they  approach  the 
ceiling.  This  difference  of  colour  might  perhaps  be  intended 
to  give  the  effect  of  greater  height  and  airiness,  and  the 
painter  further  took  advantage  of  it  to  produce  greater  variety 
in  his  designs.  Often  the  several  tiers  of  colour  are  charged 
with  arabesques  in  distinct  styles,  as  indeed  in  this  vestibule, 
where  the  black  plinth  is  ornamented  with  Caryatides  bearing 
javelins,  from  which  depend  festoons  of  fruit  and  flowers ; 
the  red  compartment  is  relieved  with  architectural  arabesques, 
intermixed  with  Bacchantes  ;  and  in  the  white  the  painter 
has  again  introduced  Caryatides,  together  with  2)riestesses 
and  architectural  designs. 

1.  Vestibule.  2.  Tuscan  atrium,  paved  with  opus  Signinum, 
intermixed  with  a  more  than  usual  quantity  of  broken  marble. 
3.  Impluviimi.  4.  Marble  trough.  5,  G.  Fountain  and 
marble  table,  with  two  hollows,  7,  under  it,  lined  with 
marble,  and  with  marble  covers.  These  probably  were 
meant  for  wine  coolers,  and  were  continually  supplied  with 
fresh  water  from  the  adjoining  fountain,  which  consists  cf 
a  rectangular  plinth,  inlaid  with  various  marbles,  among 
which  are  dark  green  serpentine,  with  lighter  spots,  and  rosso 
and  giallo  antico.  A  small  bronze  mask  was  let  into  the 
upper  part,  through  which  a  streamlet  spouted  into  the 
trough,  4,  and  thence  trickled  over  into  the  impluvium.  The 
style  of  painting  is  similar  to  that  of  the  vestibule.  A  dark 
red  plinth  surrounds  the  room,  on  which  Nereids  are  painted, 
reposing  on  sea-lions  and  other  marine  monsters ;  and  from 
this  style  of  ornament,  which  is  prevalent  throughout  the 
whole,  the  house  has  received  one  of  its  names.  Above  are 
architectural  arabesques  on  a  black  ground — a  rare  exception 
to  the  rule  above  laid  down  as  to  the  order  in  which  colours 
succeed  each  other.  There  were  several  pictures  in  different 
parts  of  the  room — Venus,  standing  by  Vulcan,  while  he 


424  poOTEii. 

forges  aiTxtoiu'  for  ^Eneas ;  Daedalus  and  Pasiphae  ;  Paris 
and  Helen,  and  some  other  figui-es. 


Marble  Vase,  Fountain,  and  ^Marble  Table  in  the  Atrium  of  the  House  of  the  Xereids. 

The  tabliniim,  8,  is  paved  with  ojms  Signinum,  enriched 
with  mosaic  bands  of  different  patterns.  The  walls  are 
almost  covered  with  pictiu^es,  above  which  there  is  a  rich 
frieze,  in  which  are  intermingled  stucco  bas-reliefs  and 
pictures,  as  in  the  celebrated  baths  of  Titus  at  Eome.  This 
is  the  only  example  of  this  kind  of  decoration  yet  found  in 
Pompeii ;  and  a  conjecture  has  been  made  that  the  decoration 
of  this  room  was  not  much  anterior  to  the  destruction  of  the 
city,  since  it  much  resembles  that  style  of  ornament  which 
prevailed  among  the  Eomans  about  the  time  of  Vespasian 
and  Titus.  Here  we  find  a  red  plinth,  with  Xereids,  like 
those  in  the  atrium  ;  above  the  plinth,  a  yellow  ground  with 
flying  figiu'es,  and  a  picture  in  the  centre  of  each  wall.*  The 
subject  of  one  is  Isis,  of  another,  Mars  and  Yenus,  the  thii'd 
is  entirely  obliterated.  Above  this  yellow  ground  is  the 
stuccoed  frieze.  A  small  recess,  9,  may  perhaj^s  have  been 
the  lararium.  The  plan  of  this  house  exhibits  a  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  practice,  inasmuch  as  the  tablinum  does 


*  Xow  vanished. 


HOUSE  OF  MELEAGER. 


425 


not  comnninicate  with  the  peristyle,  nor  indeed  with  any 
apartment  except  the  atrium. 

10.  Large  room,  which  seems  to  have  been  a  storeroom, 
containing  a  staircase,  11.  The  small  chamber,  12,  is 
remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  arabesques,  and  contained  a 
very  pretty  picture  of  Cupid  leading  Jupiter,  in  the  form  of 
an  eagle,  to  Ganymede,  who  sleeps  profoundly,  in  an  elegant 
attitude  of  repose.  13  and  14  are  ornamented  in  the  same 
style,  and  with  the  same  elegance.  These  three  rooms  were 
probably  bedchambers ;  they  were  lighted  from  the  atrium 
by  windows  placed  above  the  doors.  The  room,  14,  had 
also  a  window,  15,  looking  into  the  spacious  triclinium,  16. 
This  room  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  three  vertical  stripes  in 
the  wall,  roughly  plastered  over,  corresponding  with  three 
holes  in  the  pavement ;  from  which  appearances  it  is  inferred 
that  the  house  had  been  severely  shaken  in  the  great  earth- 
quake, and  that  beams,  now  perished,  had  been  erected  in 
these  places  to  support  the  superincumbent  weight,  and 
relieve  the  wall. 

The  atrium  communicates  with  the  peristyle,  18,  by  the 
door,  17.  This  arrangement  is  remarkable  as  having  the 
peristyle  at  the  side,  instead  of  the  back  of  the  atrium,  as 
usual.  Owing  to  the  breadth  of  the  aj^erture,  and  for  the 
convenience  of  being  able  to  open  or  close  a  part  of  it,  the 
door  was  divided  into  four  leaves,  which  folded  back  like  a 
window-shutter.  This  is  plain  from  the  holes  sunk  in  the 
marble  threshold.  This  peristyle  is  one  of  the  most  magni- 
ficent and  largest  apartments  yet  found  in  Pompeii.  The 
portico  is  formed  of  twenty-four  columns,  built  of  bricks  and 
small  stones,  and  coated  with  stucco.  The  lower  portion  of 
them,  as  usual,  is  left  unfluted,  and  is  painted  red ;  the  upper 
portion  is  white.  In  point  of  architecture  they  are  irregular, 
but  approximate  to  the  Doric  order.  Below  the  abacus  is 
an  oval  moulding,  and  under  the  latter,  leaves,  on  a  blue 
ground.  Iron  rings  are  let  into  the  base  of  each  column. 
To  these  were  attached  cords,  by  means  of  which  an  awning 
could  be  spread  over  the  impluvium,  and  the  bright  glare  of 
day  softened  at  pleasure.  We  are  led  to  this  conclusion  by 
the  knowledge  that  such  veils  were  in  common  use,  as  has 
been  formerly  mentioned,  and  by  a  discovery  made  in  a 
house  recently  excavated  at  Herculaneum,  where  rings  like 


426 


POMPEII. 


these  were  found,  together  with  bars  of  iron  extended  along 
the  architrave,  between  the  intercolmnniations,  which  could 
scarcely  have  been  put  to  any  other  purpose  than  to  support 
a  covering.  The  impluvium,  19,  is  surrounded  by  a  channel 
of  stone,  to  collect  the  rain-water  and  throw  it  into  the 
reservoir,  24.  It  vras  planted  with  shrubs  and  flowers,  the 
roots  of  which  were  found.  Between  the  columns  were 
remains  of  a  wooden  fence. 

The  reservoir,  20,  is  edged  with  a  white  marble  coping 
and  lined  within  with  stucco,  painted  with  a  deep  azure,  in 
vivid  preservation,  resembling  cobalt  blue.  It  was  fed  with 
a  t  wo-fold  supply,  from  a  column,  21,  in  the  centre,  perforated 
for  a  pipe  and  bronze  cock,  by  which  the  water  could  be 
stopped  at  pleasure  ;  and  from  another  fountain,  22,  which 
ran  down  six  little  steps,  forming  a  diminutive  cascade  before 
it  reached  the  reservoir,  and  gratifying  the  senses  with  the 
sight  and  sound  of  falling  water,  so  especially  delightful  in  a 
sultry  climate.  The  square  basin,  23,  contiguous  to  the 
reservoir,  and  communicating  with  it,  may  have  served  to 
preserve  the  fish,  which  were  probably  kept  here  when  it 
became  necessary  to  empty  the  larger  cistern  ;  or  else  for  the 
more  convenient  supply  of  water  to  the  garden,  without 
damaging  the  marble  border.  The  mouth  of  a  third  cistern, 
to  receive  the  rain-water,  is  seen  at  24.  25.  Puteal,  with 
some  remains  of  a  wooden  cover.  26.  Large  earthen  pot, 
containing  lime,  the  presence  of  which  furnishes  another 
reason  for  supposing  that  the  house  was  in  course  of  repair 
at  the  time  of  the  eruption. 

The  walls  are  painted  in  the  same  style  with  those  already 
described.  It  is  remarkable  that  we  again  find  upon  a  red 
plinth  the  same  Nereids  accompanied  by  sea  monsters  :  the 
owner  must  surely  have  had  some  special  reason  for  his 
devotion  to  these  marine  deities.  Of  the  numerous  pictures 
which  once  decorated  this  peristyle  some  are  still  visible. 

The  large  apartment,  27,  is  unique.  It  will  be  recollected 
that  according  to  the  descriptions  of  Vitruvius,  the  Egyptian 
oecus  differs  from  the  Corinthian,  inasmuch  as  the  roof  of  the 
latter  is  supported  by  one  tier  of  pillars,  and  all  the  room  is 
of  the  same  height ;  while  the  former  has  a  smaller  range  of 
pillars  placed  above  and  upon  the  main  range,  and  is  sur- 
rounded with  a  gallery  level  with  the  capitals  of  the  lower 


HOUSE  OF  MELEAGER. 


427 


tier,  something  like  a  Gothic  church,  where  the  arcades  of 
the  nave  may  represent  the  lower,  the  clerestory  the  upper 
tier  of  pillars.  We  seem  to  have  an  example  of  this  method 
of  construction  here ;  but  the  building  dues  not  accurately 
agree  with  any  of  the  three  kinds  of  oeci  described  by 
Vitruvius.  The  front  of  the  apartment,  to  the  peristyle,  is 
ornamented  by  four  columns  of  considerably  larger  diameter 
than  those  in  the  interior,  which  evidently  reached,  in  a 
single  order,  to  the  height  of  the  two  orders  which  we 
suppose  to  have  existed  within.  There  is  a  staircase,  44,  at 
the  back  of  the  room,  which  may  have  led  to  the  gallery  of 
which  we  have  spoken.    The  capitals  bear  some  resemblance 


Capital  from  House  of  the  Nereids. 


to  the  Corinthian  order.  The  architraves  are  not  straight, 
as  in  pure  Greek  and  Roman  architecture,  but  are  formed  by 
a  small  segment  of  a  circle,  upon  which  the  floor  of  the 
supposed  gallery  must  have  rested.  This  innovation  was  a 
natural  consequence  of  adopting  ara^ostyle  intercolumniations. 
From  it,  it  was  a  natural  step  to  support  arches  avowedly  on 
pillars,  and  abandon  straight  entablatures—  an  architectural 
abuse,  as  it  is  termed  by  critics,  which  arose  among  the 
Romans  about  the  time  of  Titus,  and  was  much  followed  by 


428 


POMPEII. 


the  Byzantines  and  Gotlis.  The  columns  and  walls  of  this 
hall  are  tinted  yellow,  and  even  the  pictures  are  monochrome, 
as  it  is  termed,  or  painted  in  one  colour,  that  colour  being 
yellow.  This  probably  was  an  imitation  of  that  extravagance 
which  made  the  wealthier  Eomans  cover  their  walls  entirely 
with  gilding.  Two  of  the  pictures  remain :  Theseus  con- 
versing with  Ariadne  after  having  killed  the  Minotaur ;  and, 
as  it  should  seem,  Tiresias,  after  his  transformation  into  a 
woman.  The  floor  is  mosaic,  white  bordered  with  black 
patterns.  Of  the  two  exedrae  which  flank  this  noble  apart- 
ment, 28  is  much  more  plainly  decorated  than  the  rest  of  the 
house.  The  cornice  is  richly  wrought  in  stucco,  the  rest  is 
a  plain  white  ground ;  and  as  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  this 
arrangement  was  intended  to  be  permanent,  in  the  midst  of 
so  much  splendour,  we  have  a  fresh  reason  for  supposing  that 
the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  interrupted  the  restoration  of  this 
house.  We  may  also  infer,  that  as  the  plaster  was  all  laid  on 
at  once,  it  was  intended  to  receive  encaustic,  or,  at  all  events, 
not  fresco  paintings.  The  exedra,  29,  is  noble  in  its  pro- 
portions, and  richly  ornamented  in  the  prevailing  style. 

The  great  triclinium,  30,  is  of  magniflcent  dimensions.  It 
has  two  doors,  one  to  the  peristyle,  the  other  to  a  passage,  34, 
which  traverses  the  whole  breadth  of  the  house.  Here  again 
the  paintings  and  the  pavement  are  in  the  same  style  which 
we  have  described  so  often  in  this  house,  except  that  there 
are  no  Nereids.  There  is  no  visible  provision  for  lighting 
this  room,  and  the  day  must  have  been  admitted  through  the 
roof,  or  through  windows  in  the  upper  part  of  the  walls, 
which,  to  correspond  with  the  usual  lofty  proportions  of 
Pompeian  rooms,  must  have  been  of  extraordinary  height. 
There  is  one  well-preserved  picture  of  the  Judgment  of 
Paris.  31.  Antechamber.  32.  Sleeping-room,  elegantly 
painted.  33.  Probably  the  porter's  lodge,  having  two  doors, 
one  to  the  atrium,  the  other  to  the  peristyle,  and  two 
windows,  one  high  and  narrov/,  to  the  street,  the  other  low 
and  spacious,  to  the  peristyle ;  so  that  this  room  commanded 
a  view  of  both  the  chief  apartments  of  resort. 

The  rest  of  the  house  is  devoted  to  humbler  purposes  and 
meaner  occupiers.  The  passage,  34,  leads  from  the  offices, 
and  communicates  with  the  atrium,  the  peristyle,  and  the 
triclinium.     It  terminates  in  a  back-door,  49.     35,  36. 


430 


POMPEII. 


Chamber,  and  recess  for  the  bed.  37.  Inclined  plane, 
terminating  in  three  steps — a  very  common  substitute  for  a 
staircase,  as  in  the  crypto-portico  of  Eumachia.  38,  39,  40, 
41.  Ergastulum,  or  lodging  of  the  slaves,  as  is  conjectured 
fi'om  the  retired  situation,  the  total  absence  of  ornament,  and 
the  little  light  which  could  have  been  received  by  those 
rooms.  42.  A  chamber  of  a  better  order,  which  from  its 
neighbourhood  to  the  kitchen  was  probably  occupied  by  some 
head  servant.  43.  Kitchen,  open  to  the  passage.  Above  the 
hearth  is  painted  a  serj)ent,  twined  round  a  tripod,  and  two 
camilli,  or  servants  of  the  priest,  about  to  assist  at  a  sacrifice. 
45.  Sink,  &c.  46,  47,  48.  Mean  rooms,  probably  occupied 
by  servants.  We  give  a  section  of  the  house  on  p.  429,  drawn 
from  A  to  B  on  the  plan.* 

*  The  section  below  refers  to  the  tombs. 


431 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

SURVEY   OF  THE   REMAINDER   OF  THE  CITY. — INSCRIPTIONS  AND 
GRAFFITI. — CASTS  OF  BODIES. 

Proceeding  soutliward  along  the  Street  of  Mercury,  we  pass 
under  the  triumphal  arch  of  Nero,  and  crossing  the  transverse 
street  which  leads  towards  the  Gate  of  Nola,  enter  the  Street 
of  the  Forum,  a  continuation  of  the  Street  of  Mercury,  leading 
straight  to  the  triumphal  arch  at  the  north  end  of  the  Forum, 
and  bounding  the  island  of  the  baths  on  the  eastern  side. 
This  street  is  one  of  the  most  spacious  in  Pompeii,  being 
twenty-two  feet  wide  and  about  two  hundred  feet  long.  We 
have  given,  in  the  first  part  of  this  work,  a  long  catalogue  of 
articles  found  here  in  the  course  of  excavation.  One  of  the 
houses  about  the  centre  of  the  street,  nearly  opposite  the 
entrance  to  the  Thermae,  is  of  more  consequence  than  the 
rest,  and  has  been  named  the  House  of  Bacchus,  from  a  large 
painting  of  that  god  on  a  door  opj)osite  to  the  entry.  Channels 
for  the  introduction  of  water  were  found  in  the  atrium,  which 
has  been  surrounded  by  a  small  trough,  formed  to  contain 
flowers,  the  outer  side  of  which  is  painted  blue,  to  injitate 
water,  with  boats  floatiug  upon  it.    The  wall  behind  this  is 


432 


POMPEII. 


painted  with  pillars,  between  which  are  balustrades  of  various 
forms.  Cranes  and  other  birds  perch  upon  these,  and  there 
is  a  background  of  reeds  and  other  vegetables,  above  which 


Bacchus,  from  a  painting. 


the  sky  is  visible.  The  greater  portion  of  the  eastern  side  of 
the  street  is  occupied  by  a  row  of  shops  with  a  portico  in 
front  of  them.  It  is  flanked  on  either  side  by  footpaths,  and 
must  have  presented  a  noble  appearance  when  terminated  by 
triumphal  arches  at  either  end,  and  overlooked  by  the  splendid 


SURVEY  OF  THE  REMAINDER  OF  THE  CITY.  433 

Temple  of  Jupiter  and  that  of  Fortune  elevated  on  its  lofty 
basis.  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  last-named  edifice  does 
not  stand  symmetrically  either  with  the  Street  of  the  Forum 
or  with  the  Street  of  the  Baths  running  past  the  House  of 
Pansa.  "  The  portico,"  we  quote  again  from  Gell,  is 
turned  a  little  towards  the  Forum,  and  the  front  of  the 
temple  is  so  contrived  that  a  part  of  it  might  be  seen  also 
from  the  other  street.  It  is  highly  probable  that  these 
circumstances  are  the  result  of  design  rather  than  of  chance 
The  Greeks  seem  to  have  j)referred  the  view  of  a  magnificent 
building  from  a  corner,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  right-angled 
plan  to  be  found  either  in  ancient  or  modern  Italy."*  In 
the  Street  of  the  Forum  has  been  established  a  temporary 
museum  of  articles  found  in  Pompeii.  Adjoining  it  is  a 
library  containing  all  the  best  works  that  have  been  written 
on  the  city. 

The  street  running  westward  between  the  baths  and  the 
Forum  presents  nothing  remarkable,  except  that  in  it  are  the 
signs  of  the  milk-shop  and  school  of  gladiators  above  described. 
There  is  also  an  altar,  probably  dedicated  to  Jupiter,  placed 
against  the  wall  of  a  house  ;  above  it  is  a  bas-relief  in  stucco, 
with  an  eagle  in  the  tympanum.  Eastward  of  the  Forum 
this  street  assumes  the  name  of  the  Street  of  Dried  Fruits, 
from  an  inscription  showing  that  dried  fruits  were  sold  in  it ; 
and,  indeed,  a  considerable  quantity  of  figs,  raisins,  chesnuts. 
plums,  hempsecd,  and  similar  articles  were  found.  It  is  now 
however  usually  called  the  Street  of  the  Augustals.  Near 
the  point  at  which  this  street  is  intersected  by  that  of 
Eumachia,  running  at  the  back  of  the  east  side  of  the  Forum, 
there  is  a  remarkably  graceful  painting  of  a  youthful  Bacchus 
pressing  the  juice  of  the  grape  into  a  vase  placed  upon  a 
pillar,  at  the  foot  of  which  is  a  rampant  animal  expecting  the 
liquor,  apparently  meant  for  a  tiger  or  panther,  but  of  very 
diminutive  size.  This  picture  is  one  foot  five  inches  high 
and  one  foot  two  inches  w^ide.  It  probably  served  for  the 
sign  of  a  wine-merchant.  Corresponding  v/ith  it,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  shop,  is  a  painting  of  Mercury,  to  render 
that  knavish  god  propitious  to  the  owner's  trade. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  the  Street  of  Abundance,  or  of  the 

*  Pompeiana,  Second  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  70, 

2  F 


i34 


POMPEIL 


iStuue  Duorway  in  the  tstreet  ofihc  Silvci^ruiths. 


HOUSE  OF  THE  WILD  BOAR. 


435 


Merchants,  formerly  called  the  Street  of  the  Silversmiths. 
This  is  about  twenty-eight  feet  wide,  and  bordered  on  each 
side  by  footpaths  about  six  feet  wide,  which  are  described  as 
made  in  several  places  of  a  hard  plaster,  probably  analogous 
to  opus  Signinum.  At  the  end  next  the  Forum  it  is  blocked 
up  by  two  steps,  which  deny  access  to  wheel  carriages,  and  is 
in  other  parts  so  much  encumbered  by  large  stepping-stones 
that  the  passage  of  such  vehicles,  if  not  prohibited,  must 
have  been  difficult  and  inconvenient. 

We  may  here  take  notice  of  a  peculiarity  in  this  street.  It 
slopes  with  a  very  gentle  descent  away  from  the  Forum,  and 
the  courses  of  masonry,  instead  of  being  laid  horizontally, 
run  parallel  to  the  slope  of  the  ground,  a  unique' instance,  as 
we  believe,  of  such  a  construction.  We  give  a  view  of  a 
handsome  and  (which  is  rare  in  Pompeii)  a  perfect  doorway 
of  stone,  copied  from  the  second  series  of  Sir  W.  Gell's 
Pompeii.*  Above  it  part  of  a  window  still  remains.  In 
front  the  reader  will  observe  the  stepping-stones  of  which  we 
have  spoken.  On  the  right-hand  of  the  vestibule  a  monkey 
is  painted  playing  on  the  double  pipe,  as  if  he  were  the 
guardian  of  the  entry.  The  doors  of  several  shops  in  this 
street  have  left  perfect  impressions  on  the  volcanic  deposit, 
by  which  it  aj)pears  that  the  planks  of  which  they  were 
made  lapped  one  over  the  other,  like  the  planks  of  a  boat. 

Although  the  houses  that  line  this  street  have  now  been 
cleared,  there  still  remains  a  large  unexcavated  space  on  its 
southern  side.  The  only  house  requiring  notice  is  that 
called  the  Casa  del  Cinghiale,  or  House  of  the  Wild  Boar,  a 
little  way  down  on  the  right-hand  side  in  going  from  the 
Forum.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  mosaic  pavement  of 
the  prothyrum,  representing  a  boar  attacked  by  two  dogs. 
The  house  is  remarkable  for  its  well-preserved  peristyle  of 
fourteen  Ionic  columns,  with  their  capitals.  On  the  right  is 
a  brick  staircase  leading  to  a  large  garden.  The  atrium  is 
bordered  with  a  mosaic  representing  the  walls  of  a  city  with 
towers  and  battlements,  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  walls  of 
Pompeii.  \ 

Just  beyond  this  house  is  a  small  street  or  lane,  turning 
down  to  the  right,  called  the  Vicolo  del  Dodici  Dei,  from  a 

*  The  visitor  will  now  look  tor  it  in  vain. 


436 


POMPEII. 


]3aiiiting  on  tlie  outside  wall  of  the  corner  house,  in  the 
manner  of  a  frieze,  representing  the  twelve  greater  divinities. 
Below  is  the  usual  painting  of  serpents.  At  the  corner  of 
the  quadrivium  is  tlio  apothecary's  shop,  in  which  was  a 
large  collection  of  surgical  instruments,  mortars,  drugs,  and 
pills.    The  house  is  not  otherwise  remarkable. 

Of  the  early  excavations  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
town  few  records  are  jn-eserved.  In  the  Quarter  of  the 
Theatres,  besides  the  public  buildings,  Vv'hich  have  been  fully 


Tools  found  in  the  House  of  the  Sculpt 


described,  there  are  but  two  houses  of  anv  interest.  These 
occupy  the  space  between  the  Temple  of  ^5]sculapius  and  the 
small  theatre.  The  easternmost  of  them  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  yet  discovered  in  Pompeii,  not  for  the  beauty  or 
curiosity  of  the  building  itself,  but  for  its  contents,  which 


HOUSE  OF  THE  SCULPTOR — OF  JOSEPH  II.  437 

prove  it  to  have  been  the  abode  of  a  sculptor.  Here  were 
found  statues,  some  half  finished,  others  just  begun,  with 
blocks  of  marble,  and  all  the  tools  required  by  the  artist. 
Among  these  w^ere  thirty-two  mallets,  many  compasses, 
curved  and  straight,  a  great  quantity  of  chisels,  three  or 
four  levers,  jacks  for  raising  blocks,  saws,  &c.,  &c.  The 
house  has  the  usual  arrangement  of  atrium,  tablinum,  and 
peristyle,  but,  owing  to  the  inclination  of  the  ground,  the 
peristyle  is  on  a  higher  level  than  the  public  part  of  the 
house,  and  communicates  with  it  by  a  flight  of  steps.  A 
large  reservoir  for  water  extended  under  the  j)eri  style,  w^hich 
w^as  in  good  preservation  when  first  found,  but  has  been 
much  injured  by  the  failure  of  the  vault  beneath. 

Eeturning  by  the  southernmost  of  the  two  roads  which  lead 
to  the  Forum,  we  find,  beside  the  wall  of  the  triangular  Forum 
as  it  is  called,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  houses  in  Pompeii, 
if  not  for  its  size,  at  least  for  its  construction.  The  excava- 
tions here  made  were  begun  in  April,  1769,  in  the  presence 
of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  after  whom  this  house  has  been 
named;  but  after  curiosity  was  satisfied,  they  were  filled 
up  again  with  rubbish,  as  was  then  usual,  and  vines  and 
poplars  covered  them  almost  entirely  at  the  time  when 
Mazois  examined  the  place,  insomuch  that  the  underground 
stories  were  all  that  he  could  personally  observe.  The 
emperor  was  accompanied  in  his  visit  by  his  celebrated 
minister.  Count  Kaunitz,  the  king  and  queen  of  Naples,  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  the  English  ambassador  at  Na2)les,  and 
one  or  two  distinguished  antiquaries.  This  w^as  one  of  the 
first  j)rivate  dwellings  excavated  at  Pompeii.  It  appears  to 
have  been  a  mansion  of  considerable  magnificence,  and,  from 
its  elevated  position,  must  have  commanded  a  fine  view  over 
the  Bay  of  Naples  towards  Sorrento.  The  "  find  "  was  so 
good  on  the  occasion  of  the  emperor's  visit,  as  to  excite  his 
suspicion  of  some  deceit.  The  numerous  articles  turned  up 
afforded  Sir  W.  Hamilton  an  opportunity  to  display  his 
antiquarian  knowledge.  Joseph  appears  to  have  been  rather 
disgusted  on  hearing  that  only  thirty  men  were  employed 
on  the  excavations,  and  insisted  that  three  thousand  were 
necessary.*    We  give  a  plan  of  the  three  stories  in  one. 


*  Hist,  Pomp.  Aniiq.f  t.  i.  p.  228,  seq. 


POMPEII, 


HOUSE  OF  JOSEPH  II. 


439 


1.  Protliyrum.  2.  Several  rooms  surrounding  the  atrium. 
3.  Probably  a  shop.  4.  Tuscan  atrium.  5.  Impluvium. 
6.  Alae.  7.  Tablinum.  8.  Fauces.  9.  Antscbamber  to  10, 
the  staircase  which  communicates  with  the  lower  stories 
situated  under  the  terrace.  11.  This  portion  of  the  house 
had  the  arrangement  and  the  magnificence  of  a  private  basilica. 
It  may  probably  be  considered  as  a  specimen  of  the  Corinthian 
oecus,  which  Vitruvius  describes  as  containing  a  single  order 
of  columns  supporting  an  entablature  and  vaulted  roof.  12. 
Eooms  for  dilBferent  uses.  All  this  suite  of  apartments  was 
on  a  level  with  the  street,  and  seems  to  have  been  the  public 
part  of  the  house.  The  effect  produced  upon  the  visitor  of 
this  princely  mansion  must  have  been  very  striking,  when,  at 
first  entrance,  he  saw  through  the  long  perspective  of  the 
atrium  and  this  noble  hall  one  of  the  most  beautiful  land- 
scapes which  the  world  can  aftbrd  ;  for  the  back  part  of  this 
house  is  situated  on  a  declivity  which  anciently  sloped  down 
towards  the  sea,  and  commanded  an  uninterrupted  view  over 
the  bay,  towards  Stabiae.  13,  14.  Terraces  at  different 
elevations.  Beneath  the  terrace  attached  to  the  upper  floor 
there  was  a  lower  story  containing  several  rooms,  which  pro- 
bably were  those  chiefly  devoted  to  domestic  use.  One  of 
these  was  a  triclinium,  as  is  indicated  by  a  little  oven  or 
stove  in  one  corner,  evidently  intended  for  the  service  of  the 
table.  There  was  also  a  handsome  suite  of  three  rooms,  well 
adapted  for  the  assembling  the  family  or  the  reception  of 
friends,  commanding  that  delightful  view  which  marks  out 
the  brow  of  this  hill  as  the  most  enviable  situation  in  the 
whole  town.  A  second  terrace,  14,  extends  in  front  of  these 
rooms,  below  which  terrace  there  is  yet  a  suite  of  baths.  The 
approach  to  them  is  by  a  staircase,  terminated  by  an  inclined 
plane.  We  find  the  usual  apparatus  of  a  furnace-room, 
apodyterium,  tepidarium,  and  caldarium,  or  sudatorium,  but 
little  remains  which  can  illustrate  the  subject  of  private  batlis. 
The  most  remarkable  part  of  them  is  the  sudatorium,  whicli 
in  its  plan  resembles  the  frigidarium  of  the  Thermae,  being 
a  circular  room  with  four  niches,  serving  as  seats,  hollowed 
out  in  the  wall.  The  vault  is  conical,  terminating  in  a  long 
tube  which  is  carried  up  to  the  terrace  floor,  and  there  ter- 
minated by  a  movable  stone  plug,  serving  as  a  ventilator,  to 
give  free  exit  at  pleasure  to  the  heated  air  and  vapour.  These 


440 


POMPEII. 


curious  batlis  were  covered  in  again  in  part  by  the  rubbish 
thrown  out  from  the  excavations  of  the  triangular  Forum.  It 
was  then  remarked  that  the  subterranean  apartments,  in 
which  there  was  formerly  no  trace  whatever  of  mephitic 
vapour,  became  foul  after  they  were  encumbered  with  lapilli^ 
as  the  small  volcanic  substances  are  called  with  which 
Pompeii  is  covered.  The  subterranean  vaults  of  the  amphi- 
theatre were  also  so  impregnated  with  unwholesome  gas 
before  they  were  cleared,  that  Mazois,  while  examining  them, 
encountered  a  heavy  whitish  vapour,  which  rose  slowly,  and 
affected  his  respiration  so  much  that  he  was  compelled  to 
make  a  hasty  retreat  before  it  reached  the  level  of  his  mouth. 
It  would  seem  from  these  observations,  that  the  mephitic  air 
so  common  in  the  volcanic  district  of  Naples  resides  princi- 
pally in  the  beds  of  ashes  and  scoriae,  and  is  disengaged  by 
the  action  of  heat  and  moisture.  A  skeleton  was  discovered 
in  the  furnace-room  of  these  baths. 

Eeturning  westward  towards  the  Forum,  we  pass  by  other 
houses  of  the  same  character,  consisting  of  tv/o  or  three 
stories,  half  built,  half  excavated,  on  the  side  of  the  hill ;  but 
they  have  not  been  described  with  minuteness  enough  to 
furnish  us  with  anything  worth  narrating.  On  the  right 
hand  is  the  house  already  described  under  the  name  of  Casa 
Carolina.  We  enter  the  Forum  at  its  south-eastern  angle. 
The  south-western  corner  of  the  town,  between  the  Forum 
and  the  declivity  of  the  hill,  has  been  but  partially  excavated ; 
and  the  only  houses  worthy  of  notice  are  two  which  were 
excavated  by  General  Championet,  while  in  command  of  the 
French  troops  in  occupation  of  Naples.  They  lie  contiguous 
to  one  another,  and  close  to  the  basilica.  Without  being 
large,  they  impress  us,'  by  the  elegance  of  their  decoration, 
with  the  idea  that  they  belonged  to  wealthy  and  cultivated 
persons.  One  of  them  consists  of  a  prothyrum,  Tuscan  atrimn, 
peristyle,  and  the  usual  apartments  upon  a  small  scale,  and  is 
scarcely  worth  a  minute  description  :  the  other  is  more 
remarkable,  though  not  larger. 

A  prothyrum  leads  from  the  narrow  street  which  runs  be- 
side the  basilica  into  a  tetrastyle  atrium.  The  columns  have 
evidently  been  composed  of  old  materials  worked  up  again, 
and  stuccoed  over  to  make  a  fair  show.  At  the  foot  of  one 
where  this  coating  is  broken  away,  part  of  the  fluted  shaft  of 


HOUSES  OF  CHAMPIONET. 


441 


a  former  column  is  to  be  seen  surmounted  by  brickwork,  and 
the  upper  parts  of  the  others  are  composed  of  alternate 
courses  of  brick  and  stone.  In  the  centre  is  a  marble  im- 
pluvium  with  a  well-hole ;  the  edges  of  the  impluvium  are 
surrounded  by  mosaic  of  different  patterns.  The  lower  part 
of  the  columns  has  been  painted,  as  usual,  of  some  dark  colour. 
Around  this  apartment  a  triclinium,  hall,  and  other  rooms 
are  disposed.  An  open  tablinum  intervened  between  the 
atrium  and  the  peristyle,  which  enclosed  a  diminutive  xystus, 
or  garden.  The  most  remarkable  thing  in  it  is,  that  apert  ares 


Tctra^iyk'  Allium  ufa  IluUtc  excavated  by  Gen.  Championet. 


are  cut  in  the  basement  or  pluteum  which  supported  the 
pillars  of  the  peristyle,  to  give  light  to  a  subterranean  set  of 
apartments,  accessible  either  from  the  peristyle  by  a  staircase, 
or  from  the  street  by  a  long  sloping  jmssage.  A  chamber 
which  looks  upon  the  peristyle  is  remarkable  for  the  elegance 
of  its  decorations.  Around  the  lower  parts  of  the  walls  there 
runs  a  broad  skirting  of  a  deep  red,  relieved  by  paintings  of 
flowers,  and  minute  borders  and  ornaments.  1'he  upper  j^art 
is  of  a  brilliant  celestial  blue,  divided  into  compartments  by 


442 


POMPEII. 


broad  borders  and  arabesques,  in  the  centre  of  wliich  com- 
partments are  medallions  containing  figures  of  elegant  design 
and  execution.  Flying  Cuj)ids,  with  peacocks,  doves,  and 
other  animals,  appear  to  be  the  favourite  subjects. 

We  have  now  surveyed,  besides  the  temples  and  public 
buildings,  all  that  part  of  the  city  lying  between  the  Gate  of 
Herculaneum  and  adjacent  wall  on  the  north,  the  Street  of 
the  Baths  and  Street  of  Fortune  on  the  south,  the  boundary 
of  the  city  on  the  west,  and  the  islands  containing  the  House 
of  the  Faun  and  the  House  of  the  Labyrinth  on  the  east.  We 
have  also  taken  a  view  of  the  Street  of  the  Forum  and  that  of 
Abundance,  together  with  the  houses  lying  to  the  southward 
and  westward  of  the  latter.  Before  proceeding  to  describe 
the  rest  of  the  city,  so  far  as  it  has  been  excavated,  it  may 
be  as  well  to  lay  down  a  few  general  landmarks,  which  will 
serve  to  make  the  description  more  readily  understood. 

in  continuation  of  the  Street  of  the  Baths  and  that  of 
Fortune,  a  long  street,  called  the  Street  of  Nola,  runs  in  an 
easterly  direction  to  the  gate  of  the  same  name.  The  houses 
that  line  this  street  have  been  partially  excavated,  but  as 
they  did  not  promise  much  that  would  reward  research,  the 
excavation  of  them  was  abandoned. 

The  line  of  streets  just  described,  intersecting  the  city 
from  west  to  east,  is  cut  near  its  centre  by  another  long 
street  running  from  the  Gate  of  Vesuvius  on  the  north  to 
the  Gate  of  Stabile  on  the  south,  a  little  beyond  the  theatres 
and  the  barracks  of  the  gladiators.  This  street,  which,  so  far 
as  it  is  cleared,  is  called  the  Street  of  Stabiae,  bounds  the 
excavations  to  the  east,  though  some  of  the  houses  lining  its 
eastern  side,  and  among  them  one  or  two  remarkable  ones, 
have  been  cleared.  But  on  its  western  side  are  some  of  the 
most  recent  excavations,  which  we  will  now  proceed  to 
describe. 

The  Street  of  Fortune  on  the  north,  that  of  the  Augustals  on 
the  south,  that  of  the  Forum  on  the  west,  and  that  of  Stabise 
on  the  east,  form  a  large  isolated  district,  or  insula,  inter- 
sected, however,  by  one  or  two  minor  streets,  as  the  Vico 
Storto,  a  narrow  crooked  lane  running  north  and  south,  and 
another  small  street  leading  from  the  middle  of  the  Yico 
Storto  to  the  Street  of  Stabile. 

On  the  northern  side  of  the  island  just  defined,  and  east- 


HOUSE  OF  ARIADNE. 


443 


ward  of  the  Temple  of  Fortune,  lie  three  noticeable  houses, 
namely,  the  House  of  the  Black  Walls,  the  House  of  the 
Figured  Capitals,  and  the  House  of  the  Grand  Duke  ;  but 
they  do  not  offer  such  striking  peculiarities  as  to  require  any 
detailed  description  here.  The  next  house  to  the  east  of 
these,  known  as  the  House  of  the  Coloured  Capitals,  or  of 
Ariadne,  is  of  considerable  size  and  elegance.  It  derives 
its  first  name  from  the  columns  of  the  peristyle,  the  capitals 
of  which  were  painted  in  bright  colours ;  the  other  name  is 
taken  from  a  picture  in  a  room  next  to  the  tablinum,  repre- 
senting the  abandonment  of  Ariadne.  The  arrangement  of 
this  house  is  singular.  It  has  two  entrances,  one  in  the 
Street  of  Fortune,  the  other  in  the  Street  of  the  Augustals  ;  so 
that  on  whichever  side  the  visitor  enters,  he  has  before  him 
the  usual  suite  of  rooms  of  a  Pompeian  house,  namely,  an 
atrium  terminated  by  a  tablinum,  and  a  peristyle  beyond. 

The  entrance  from  the  Street  of  Fortune  leads  into  a 
magnificent  Corinthian  atrium,  with  twenty-four  columns  of 
the  Tuscan  order  on  two  of  which  may  still  be  seen  a  vestige 
of  the  entablature.  The  atrium  is  upwards  of  eighty  feet 
long  and  forty-three  broad.  The  intercolumniations  could  be 
closed  with  curtains,  as  was  also  the  case  in  the  House  of 
the  Faun.  The  area,  besides  a  small  compluvium,  has  in  the 
corner  a  curious  design,  intended  perhaps  for  a  flower-bed, 
consisting  of  bricks  disposed  so  as  to  form  four  concentric 
circles  within  three  rectangles.  The  apartments  surround- 
ing the  atrium  are  small  and  undecorated,  except  the  wing 
(there  is  only  one),  the  lintel  of  which  is  supported  by  two 
columns.  Before  it  is  a  marble  puieal,  the  sides  much  worn 
with  the  cord.  In  a  room  on  the  left  of  the  tablinum  is  the 
picture  of  Ariadne  abandoned. 

The  peristyle  was  supported  by  sixteen  Ionic  columns,  the 
lower  third  of  which  is  painted  yellow.  The  capitals,  as 
w^e  have  said,  were  brilliantly  coloured.  In  the  centre  is  a 
large  quadrangular  basin,  sixteen  feet  long  by  about  six  broad, 
and  three  feet  three  inches  deep.  In  the  middle  of  it  is  a 
hollow  column  which  threw  up  a  jet  cVeau.  The  peristyle 
had  two  puteals.  The  chief  paintings  with  which  its  walls 
w^ere  adorned  have  been  carried  to  the  Museum.  The  second 
chamber  on  the  right,  after  entering  from  the  tablinum,  has 
paintings  of  the  Battles  of  the  Storks  and  Pigmies.    In  a 


444 


POMPEII. 


sort  of  wing  on  the  same  side  were  depicted  Venus  and 
Adonis,  and  a  love  mercliant,  or  man  selling  little  Cupids. 
On  the  floor  of  the  room  next  to  it  is  a  fine  and  well  pre- 
served mosaic  of  fish.  At  the  bottom  of  the  peristyle,  instead 
of  the  usual  exedra,  is  another  tablinum,  belonging  to  the 
second  atrium  beyond.  An  apartment  on  the  left,  entered 
from  the  corridor,  or  fauces,  has  pictures  of  Ganymede  feed- 
ing the  eagle  of  Jove,  the  Triumph  of  Galatea,  the  Dioscuri, 
and  Perseus  shewing  to  Andromeda  the  head  of  Medusa, 
with  several  female  figures,  architecture,  &c.,  above.  Only  the 
second  and  third  of  these  pictures  now  remain  in  sita,  and 
are  in  a  tolerable  state  of  preservation.  In  the  middle  of 
the  left  side  of  the  peristyle  is  a  large  apartment,  intended 
apparently  to  supply  the  place  of  the  missing  exedra.  The 
bottom  of  it  forms  a  hemicycle,  with  a  niche  for  a  statue. 
Among  the  pictures  which  decorated  it  may  be  discerned  a 
Sacrifice,  Leda  and  the  Swan,  a  priestess  receiving  an  offer 
ing,  Apollo  playing  on  the  lyre  before  a  woman  and  a  yoang 
man  armed  with  a  sword. 

Passing  the  tablinum,  we  enter  the  second,  or  Tuscan, 
atrium.  It  is  in  a  ruinous  state.  One  of  its  wings  has  a 
lararium,  and  a  well-preserved  picture  of  Apollo  and  Daphne. 
The  prothyrum,  forming  the  entrance  to  the  Street  of  the 
Augustals,  has  a  shop  on  either  side,  one  of  which  forms  the 
angle  of  the  Yico  Storto. 

The  house  at  the  angle  of  the  Yico  Storto  and  Street  of 
Fortune  has  obtained  the  name  of  Casa  Sella  Caccia,  from  a 
great  painting  on  the  wall  of  the  peristyle  representing  a 
combat  with  wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre.  The  space 
between  the  Yico  Storto  and  the  Street  of  Stabile  remains 
for  the  most  part  unexcavated. 

Passing  on  to  the  insula  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Street  of  Holconius,  on  the  south  by  the  Street  of  Isis,  on 
the  west  by  the  Street  of  the  Theatres,  and  on  the  east  by 
that  of  StabiaB,  we  find  two  remarkable  houses  excavated 
within  the  last  few  years.  That  at  the  northern  corner  of 
the  Street  of  the  Theatres,  numbered  4  on  the  entrance, 
is  sometimes  called  the  House  of  Holconius.  It  was  exca- 
vated in  1861.  The  interior  is  represented  in  the  annexed 
engraving.  The  two  shops  which  precede  it,  numbered  2 
and  3,  seem  to  have  been  the  property  of  the  master  of  the 


HOUSE  OF  HOLCONIUS. 


445 


house,  and  communicate  witli  each  other.  A  third  shop, 
numbered  1,  at  the  angle  of  the  street,  appears  to  have  been 
occupied  by  a  dyer,  and  is  called  Taberna  Offectoris.*  On 


the  front  of  the  house  were  some  inscriptions  for  electioneer- 
ing purposes. 

Fiorelli,  Giornak  dcgli  Scavi,  No.  1,  p.  11, 


446 


POMPEII. 


The  pilasters  on  either  side  of  the  main  entrance  are 
painted  red  to  about  the  height  of  a  man,  beyond  which 
they  are  of  white  plaster.  On  entering  the  prothyrum  may 
be  observed  a  large  hole  in  the  wall,  destined  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  rejmgidum,  or  strong  wooden  bar  with  which  the 
door  was  secured.  The  door  api^ears,  from  the  places  for  bolts 
on  the  threshold,  to  have  been  composed  of  two  pieces  (bifora). 
The  walls  of  the  prothyrum  are  painted  black,  with  a  red 
podium,  divided  into  three  compartments  by  green  and 
yellow  lines,  in  the  middle  of  which  are  an  aquatic  bird, 
perhaps  an  ibis,  a  swan  with  spread  wings,  and  an  ornament 
that  cannot  be  made  out.  Towards  the  top  the  walls  are 
painted  with  fantastic  pieces  of  architecture  on  a  white 
ground;  amidst  which,  on  one  side,  is  a  nymph  descending 
a23parently  from  heaven.  She  has  a  golden-coloured  vest,  on 
her  shoulders  is  a  veil  agitated  by  the  breeze,  and  she  bears 
in  her  hand  a  large  dish  tilled  with  fruits  and  herbs.  On  the 
other  side  was  a  similar  figure,  playing  on  the  lyre,  with  a 
sky-blue  vest  and  rose-coloured  veil  that  fluttered  about  her. 
The  remaining  architectural  paintings  contained  little  winged 
Cupids,  one  holding  a  cornucopia,  another  a  drum,  and  two 
with  baskets  of  fruit  and  flowers.  These  were  the  good 
geniuses,  which,  by  being  depicted  at  the  entrance  of  a  house, 
repelled  all  evil  influences  and  rendered  it  a  joyful  abode.* 

The  pavement  of  the  Tuscan  atrium  is  variegated  with 
small  pieces  of  \vhite  marble  placed  in  rows.  The  implu- 
vium  in  the  middle  appears  to  have  been  under  repair,  as  it 
is  stripped  of  its  marble  liniug.  The  walls  of  the  atrium  are 
painted  red,  with  vertical  black  zones  like  pilasters,  or  antcc, 
besides  lines  and  ornaments  of  various  colours.  On  the 
wall  to  the  left  of  the  entrance  is  painted  a  recumbent 
Silenus,  crowned  with  ivy,  and  pressing  in  his  arms  the 
little  Bacchus,  who  in  alarm  is  endeavouring  to  escape  from 
his  embraces.  Near  it,  on  a  yellow  ground,  is  the  bearded 
head  of  a  man,  with  two  claws  projecting  from  his  temples 
like  horns,  and  a  beard  floating  as  if  it  was  in  the  water.  It 
may  probably  be  a  mask  of  Oceanus,  who  is  represented  on 
coins  of  Agrigentum  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner.  Under 
the  head  is  the  figui-e  of  a  hippocampus. 


*  Fiorellij  Giornale  degli  Scavi,  p.  15. 


If  I 


HOUSE  OF  HOLCONIUS. 


447 


Many  objects  were  found  in  this  atrium,  some  at  the  height 
of  four  or  five  yards  from  the  floor,  which  must  consequently 
have  fallen  in  from  the  upper  stories ;  and  others  on  the 
pavement  itself.  But  one  of  the  most  important  discoveries 
was  the  skeleton  of  a  woman,  near  the  entrance  of  the 
tablinum.  She  appears  to  have  been  in  the  act  of  flight,  and 
had  with  her  a  small  box  containing  her  valuables  and  nick- 
nacks.  Among  the  most  curious  of  these  was  a  necklace  com- 
posed of  amulets,  or  charms,  which,  it  will  be  observed,  are 
all  attributes  of  I  sis  and  her  attendant,  Anubis,  or  of  her 
husband  Osiris,  here  considered  as  Bacchus.  The  mystic 
articles  kept  in  the  Isiac  coffer  were,  says  Eusebius,  a  ball, 
dice,  (turbo)  wheel,  mirror,  lock  of  wool.*  The  annexed  cut 
will  convey  a  better  idea  of  this  necklace  than  any  description 
of  it. 

The  first  bedchamber  on  the  right  of  the  atrium  com- 
municated with  the  shop  No.  3,  and  was  probably  occuj)ied  by 
the  slave  who  conducted  the  business  of  it.  The  first  bed- 
chamber on  the  left  had  a  similar  communication  with  the 
shop  outside. 

There  are  few  houses  in  Pompeii  in  which  the  paintings 
are  more  numerous  or  better  preserved  tlian  in  that  which 
we  are  examining.  The  second  bedchamber  on  the  right  has 
several.  In  this  room  may  be  observed  a  space  hollowed  in 
the  wall  to  receive  the  foot  of  a  bed  or  couch.  The  ^v-alls 
are  white,  with  a  red  podium,  and  are  surmounted  by  a  cornice 
from  which  springs  the  vault.  The  upper  part  is  painted 
with  lines,  between  which  are  depicted  griffins  in  repose, 
baskets  with  thyrsi,  branches  of  herbs,  and  other  objects. 
The  lower  part  of  the  walls  is  divided  into  larger  compart- 
ments by  candelabra  supporting  little  globes.  In  each 
compartment  are  eight  small  pictures,  representing  the  heads 
and  busts  of  Bacchic  personages,  in  a  very  good  state  of 
j)reservatioii.  On  the  left  is  luacchus  crowned  with  ivy,  his 
head  covered  with  the  mitra,  a  sort  of  veil  of  fine  texture  which 
descends  upon  his  left  shoulder.  This  ornament,  as  well  as 
the  cast  of  his  features,  reveals  the  half  feminine  nature  of 
the  deity.  Oj^posite  to  him  is  the  picture  of  Ariadne,  also 
crowned  with  ivy,  clothed  in  a  green  chiton  and  a  violet 

*  For  the  explanation  of  the  necklace,  the  editor  is  indebted  to  the  kindness 
of  the  Rev.  C.  W.  King,  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 


448 


POMPEH. 


liimaflon.  She  presses  to  her  bosom  tlie  infant  lacchus,  crowned 
with  the  eternal  ivy,  and  bearing  in  his  hand  the  thyrsus. 
Then  follow  Bacchic  or  Panic  figiu'es,  some  conversing,  some 
drinking  together,  some  moving  apparently  in  the  mazes  of 
the  dance.  Paris,  with  the  Phrygian  caj)  and  crook,  seems 
to  preside  over  this  voluptuous  scene,  and  to  listen  to  a  little 
Cupid  seated  on  his  shoulder. 

In  the  chamber  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  atrium,  front- 
ing that  just  described,  were  also  foui'  pictures,  two  of  which 
are  destroyed,  the  walls  having  apparently  been  broken 
through,  not  long  after  the  destruction  of  Pompeii,  by  persons 
in  search  of  their  buried  property.  Of  the  other  two,  which 
are  almost  effaced,  one  represents  an  aged  Faun,  holding  in 
his  hands  a  thyrsus  and  a  vase ;  the  other  a  young  woman 
conversing  with  an  African  slave.  A  wooden  chest  seems  to 
have  stood  close  to  the  left-hand  wall. 

The  left  ala.  or  wing,  has  its  vralls  painted  in  yellow  and 
red  compartments,  with  a  black  podium.  In  the  middle  of 
each  was  a  valuable  painting,  but  these,  with  the  exception 
of  the  greater  part  of  one  fronting  the  entrance,  have  been 
almost  destroyed.  The  one  saved  rej^resents  Apollo,  who 
has  overtaken  Da^^hne,  and  is  clasping  her  in  his  arms, 
while  the  nymph,  who  has  fallen  on  her  knees,  re2)els  the 
embraces  of  the  deity.  A  malicious  little  Cupid,  standing 
on  tiptoes,  draws  aside  the  golden-tissued  veil  which  covered 
the  nym^Dh,  and  displays  her  naked  form.  On  the  left  of  the 
same  apartment  is  a  picture,  almost  effaced,  of  Perseus  and 
Andromeda ;  and  on  the  right  another  with  three  male 
figures,  of  which  only  the  lower  part  remains. 

The  right  ala,  which,  however,  from  its  capability  of  being 
closed  with  a  door,  does  not  properly  come  under  that  de- 
nomination, seems,  from  various  culinary  utensils  of  metal 
and  earthenware  found  in  it,  to  have  served  as  a  kitchen,  or 
rather  perhaps  as  a  store-closet. 

The  tablinum,  opposite  the  entrance,  and,  as  usual,  vrith- 
out  any  enclosure  on  the  side  of  the  atrium,  has  a  small 
marble  threshold,  and  on  its  floor  little  squares  of  coloured 
marbles  surrounded  with  a  mosaic  border.  The  yellow 
walls,  divided  into  compartments  by  vertical  stripes  of  red, 
white,  and  black,  were  beautifully  ornamented  with  the 
usual  architectural  designs  and  flying  figures.    On  each  side 


HOUSE  OF  HOLCONIUS. 


449 


were  two  larger  pictures,  of  which  only  that  on  the  left 
of  the  spectator  remains.  It  represents  Lecla  showing  to 
Tyndareus  a  nest  containing  the  two  boys  produced  from 
the  egg.  A  stucco  cornice  runs  round  the  wall,  above  which 
a  flying  nymph  is  painted  on  a  white  ground,  between  two 
balconies,  from  which  a  man  and  woman  are  looking  down 
There  are  also  figures  of  sphinxes,  goats,  &c. 

A  wooden  staircase  on  the  left  of  the  tablinum,  the  first 
step  being  of  stone,  led  to  the  floor  above.  On  the  right  is 
the  passage  called  fauces,  leading  to  the  peristyle.  On  ita 
left-hand  side,  near  the  ground,  was  a  rudely  traced  figure 
of  a  gladiator,  with  an  inscription  above,  of  which  only  the 
first  letters,  PEIMI,  remain.  On  the  left  wall  of  the  fauces, 
near  the  extremity,  and  level  with  the  eye,  is  another  inscrip- 
tion, or  graffito,  in  small  characters,  difficult  to  be  deciphered 
from  the  unusual  nexus  of  the  letters,  but  wliicli  tlie  learned 
have  supposed  to  express  the  design  of  an  invalid  to  get  rid 
of  the  pains  in  his  limbs  by  bathing  them  in  water. 

At  the  extremity  of  the  fauces,  on  the  right,  there  is  an 
entrance  to  a  room  which  has  also  another  door  leading  into 
the  portico  of  the  peristyle.  The  walls  are  painted  black 
and  red,  and  in  the  compartments  are  dej^icted  birds,  animals, 
fruits,  &c.  Two  skeletons  were  found  in  this  room.  In  the 
apartment  to  the  left,  or  east  of  the  tablinum,  of  which  the 
destination  cannot  be  certainly  determined,  the  walls  are 
also  painted  black,  with  architectural  designs  in  the  middle, 
and  figures  of  winged  Cupids  variously  employed.  On  the 
larger  walls  are  two  paintings,  of  which  that  on  the  right 
represents  the  often  repeated  subject  of  Ariadne,  who,  just 
awakened  from  sleep,  and  supported  by  a  female  figure  with 
♦  wings,  supposed  to  be  Nemesis,  views  with  an  attitude  of 
grief  and  stupor  the  departing  ship  of  Theseus,  already  far 
from  Naxos.  On  the  left  side  is  a  picture  of  Phryxus,  cross- 
ing the  sea  on  the  ram  and  stretching  out  his  arms  to  Helle, 
who  has  fallen  over  and  appears  on  the  point  of  drowning. 
The  form  of  this  chamber,  tw^ce  as  long  as  it  is  broad 
(Vitruv.  vii.  3),  its  vicinity  to  the  kitchen,  and  the  window, 
through  which  the  slaves  might  easily  convey  the  viands, 
appear  to  show  that  it  was  a  triclinimn,  or  dining-room. 
The  floor,  which  is  lower  by  a  step  than  the  peristyle,  is 
paved  with  op^^s  Signinum  and  ornamented  only  at  one  end 


450 


POMPEII. 


with  a  mosaic.  On  one  of  the  walls,  about  ten  feet  from 
the  floor,  is  the  graffito,  Sjdales  Avete  (Welcome  Comrades), 
which  could  have  been  inscribed  there  only  by  a  person, 
probably  a  slave,  mounted  on  a  bench  or  a  ladder. 

The  viridarium,  or  xystus,  surroimded  with  spacious  porti- 
coes, was  once  filled  with  the  choicest  flowers,  and  refreshed 
by  the  grateful  murmur  of  two  fountains.  One  of  these  in 
the  middle  of  the  peristyle  is  square,  having  in  its  centre  a 
sort  of  round  table  from  which  the  water  gushed  forth.  The 
other  fountain,  which  faces  the  tablinum,  is  composed  of  a 
little  marble  staircase,  surmounted  by  the  statue  of  a  boy 
having  in  his  right  hand  a  vase  from  which  the  water  spirted, 
and  under  his  left  arm  a  goose.  The  statue  is  rather  damaged. 
Many  objects  were  found  in  the  peristyle,  mostly  of  the  kind 
usually  discovered  in  Pompeian  houses.  Among  them  was 
an  amphora,  having  the  following  epigraph  in  black  paint : — - 

COUM.  GRAN. 
OF. 

ROM^.  ATERIO.  FELICI. 

which  has  been  interpreted  to  mean  that  it  contained  Coan 
wine  flavoured  with  pomegranate,  and  that  it  came  from 
Eome,  from  the  stores  of  Aterius  Felix.* 

The  portico  is  surrounded  by  strong  columns,  and  seems 
to  have  had  a  second  order  resting  on  the  first,  as  may  be 
inferred  from  some  indications  to  the  right  of  him  who 
enters  from  the  fauces.  The  walls  are  painted  red  and 
black,  with  architectural  designs,  candelabra,  meanders,  birds, 
winged  Cupids,  &c.  There  are  also  fourteen  small  pictures 
enclosed  in  red  lines,  eight  of  which  represent  landscapes 
and  sea-shores,  with  fishermen,  and  the  other  six  fruits  and  ^ 
eatables.  On  the  wall  on  the  right  side  is  the  following 
graffito,  or  inscription,  scratched  with  some  sharp  instrument  : 

IIX.  ID.  IVL.  AXVNGIA.  PCC. 
ALIV.  MANVPLOS.  CCL. 

That  is  :  "On  the  7tli  July,  hog's  lard,  two  hundred  pounds. 
Garlic,  two  hundred  bunches."  It  seems  therefore  to  be  a 
domestic  memorandum  of  articles  either  bought  or  sold. 
Around  the  portico  are  several  rooms,  all  having  marble 


*  Fiorelli,  Giornale,  No.  2,  p.  48. 


HOUSE  OF  HOLCONIUS. 


451 


thresholds,  and  closed  by  doors  turning  on  bronze  hinges. 
On  the  right  hand  of  the  peristyle,  near  the  entrance,  is  a 
private  door,  or  posiicum,  leading  into  the  Street  of  the 
Theatres,  by  which  the  master  of  the  house  might  escape  his 
importunate  clients. 

The  rooms  at  the  sides  of  the  peristyle  offer  nothing 
remarkable,  but  the  three  chambers  opposite  to  the  tablinum 
are  of  considerable  size,  and  contain  some  good  pictures.  The 
first  on  the  right  has  two  figures  of  Nereids  traversing  the  sea, 
one  on  a  sea-bull  the  other  on  a  liippocamjms.  Both  the 
monsters  are  guided  by  a  Cupid  with  reins  and  whip,  and 
followed  by  dolphins.  Another  painting  opposite  the  entrance 
is  too  much  effaced  to  be  made  out.  The  same  wall  has  a 
feature  not  observed  in  any  other  Pompeian  house,  namely, 
a  square  aperture  of  rather  more  than  a  foot  reaching  down 
to  the  floor,  and  opening  upon  an  enclosed  place  with  a  canal 
or  drain  for  carrying  off  the  water  of  the  adjoining  houses. 
It  seems  also  to  have  been  a  receptacle  fur  lamps,  several  of 
which  were  found  there. 

Adjoining  this  room  is  a  large  exedra  with  a  little  impluvium 
in  the  middle,  which  seems  to  indicate  an  aperture  in  the 
roof,  a  construction  hitherto  found  only  in  atria.  The 
absence  of  any  channels  in  the  floor  for  conducting  water 
seems  to  show  that  it  could  not  have  been  a  fountain.  This 
exedra  is  remarkable  for  its  paintings.  In  the  wall  in  front 
is  depicted  Narcissus  with  a  javelin  in  his  hand,  leaning  over 
a  rock  and  admiring  himself  in  the  water,  in  which  his  image 
is  reflected ;  but  great  part  of  the  painting  is  destroyed.  A 
little  Cupid  is  extinguishing  his  torch  in  the  stream.  In  the 
background  is  a  building  with  an  image  of  the  bearded 
Bacchus  ;  and  near  it  a  terminal  figure  of  Priaj)us  Ithyphal- 
licus,  with  grapes  and  other  fruits.  Tliis  picture  was  much 
damaged  in  tlie  process  of  excavation. 

On  the  left  wall  is  a  painting  of  a  naked  Hermapliroditus. 
In  his  right  hand  is  a  little  torch  reversed ;  his  left  arm  rests 
on  the  shoulders  of  Silenus,  who  appears  to  accompany  his 
songs  on  the  lyre,  whilst  a  winged  Cupid  sounds  the  double 
flute.  On  the  other  side  is  a  Bacchante  with  a  thyrsus  and 
tambourine,  and  near  her  a  little  Satyr,  who  also  holds  a  torch 
reversed. 

But  the  best  picture  in  this  apartment  is  that  representing 


452 


POMPEII. 


Ariadne  discovered  by  Bacclius.  A  youtliful  figure  with 
wings,  supposed  to  represent  Sleep,  stands  at  Ariadne's  head, 
and  seems  to  indicate  that  she  is  under  his  influence.  Mean- 
while a  little  Faun  lifts  the  veil  that  covers  her,  and  with  an 
attitude  indicating  surpr'se  at  her  beauty,  turns  to  Bacchus 
and  seems  to  invite  him  to  contemplate  her  charms.  The 
deity  himself,  crowned  with  ivy  and  berries,  clothed  in  a  short 


Bacchus  discovering  Ariadne. 


tunic  and  a  pallium  agitated  by  the  breeze,  holds  in  his  right 
hand  the  thyrsus,  and  lifts  his  left  in  token  of  admiration. 
In  the  background  a  Bacchante  sounds  her  tympanum,  and 
invites  the  followers  of  the  god  to  descend  from  the  mountains. 
These,  preceded  by  Silenus,  obey  the  summons ;  one  is  playing 
the  double  flute,  another  sounding  the  cymbals,  a  third  bears 


HOUSE  OF  RCTUS — OF  APOLLO  CITHARCEDUS.  453 

on  her  head  a  basket  of  fruit.  A  Faun  and  a  Bacchante, 
planted  on  a  mountain  on  the  left,  survey  the  scene  from  a 
distance  The  execution  of  this  picture  is  so  spirited  that  we 
have  transferred  the  annexed  engraving  of  it  to  our  pages. 

The  adjoining  triclinium,  entered  by  a  door  from  the  exedra, 
had  also  three  paintings,  one  of  which  however  is  almost 
destroyed.  Of  the  remaining  two,  that  on  the  left  represents 
Achilles  discovered  by  Ulysses  among  the  damsels  of  Lyco- 
medes.  The  subject  of  that  on  the  right  is  the  Judgment  of 
Paris.  It  is  more  remarkable  for  its  spirit  and  colouring 
than  for  the  accuracy  of  its  drawing.  This  apartment  has 
also  six  medallions  with  heads  of  Bacchic  personages. 

In  the  same  insula  as  the  house  just  described,  and  having 
its  entrance  in  the  same  street,  stands  the  house  of  Cornelius 
Rufus.  It  is  a  handsome  dwelling,  but  as  its  plan  and  decora- 
tions have  nothing  to  distinguish  them  from  other  Pompeian 
houses,  we  forbear  to  describe  them.  The  only  remarkable 
feature  in  this  excavation  was  the  discovery  of  a  Hermes  at 
the  bottom  of  the  atrium  on  the  left,  on  which  was  a  marble 
bust  of  the  owner,  as  large  as  life  and  well  executed,  having 
his  name  inscribed  beneath.  As  this  feature  does  not  occur 
elsewhere,  we  have  given  a  cut  of  the  interior  of  the  house 
on  the  next  page. 

Not  far  from  the  houses  just  described,  in  the  Street  of 
Stabiae,  at  the  angle  formed  by  the  street  leading  to  the 
amphitheatre,  stands  the  house  of  Apollo  Citharoedus,  excavated 
in  1864.  It  derives  its  name  from  a  fine  bronze  statue,  as 
large  as  life,  of  Apollo  sounding  the  lyre,  which  was  found 
there,  but  has  now  been  placed  in  the  Museum  at  Naples.  In 
this  house  the  tablinum  and  a  peristyle  beyond  are  on  a 
higher  level  than  the  atrium ;  consequently  the  fauces,  or 
passage  leading  to  the  latter,  ascends.  In  the  peristyle  is  a 
semicircular  fountain,  on  the  margin  of  which  were  disposed 
several  animals  in  bronze,  re^^resenting  a  hunting  scene.  In 
the  centre  was  a  wild  boar  in  flight  attacked  by  two  dogs ;  at 
the  sides  were  placed  a  lion,  a  stag,  and  a  serpent.  These 
animals,  arranged  in  the  same  way  in  which  they  were  found, 
are  now  preserved  in  the  Museum. 

An  unusual  arrangement  in  this  house  is  a  second  peristyle 
at  the  side  of  the  first,  and  divided  from  it  by  a  wall  having 
six  windows,  and  a  door  at  each  end.    At  the  bottom  of  this 


454 


POMPEII. 


HOUSE  OF  LUCPtETIUS. 


455 


second  peiistyle  are  some  apartments,  of  wliich  tlie  furthest 
on  the  right-hand  side  is  of  considerable  size. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  first  peristyle,  on  the  right-hand  side, 
is  a  large  door  or  archway,  which  forms  the  entry  to  a  small 
atrium,  having  rooms  at  its  sides.  On  the  wall  is  a  picture 
of  the  Judgment  of  Paris,  but  much  inferior  in  execution  to 
that  in  the  House  of  Holconius.  Some  of  the  adjacent 
chambers  have  also  paintings.  On  the  left  side  of  the  same 
peristyle  is  a  flight  of  steps  leading  to  another  peristyle  on  a 
higher  level,  and  belonging  to  another  house,  which  has  its 
principal  entrance  in  the  street  that  leads  to  the  amphi- 
theatre. 

In  the  same  Street  of  Stabine,  and  on  the  same  side  of  the 
w^ay,  but  at  a  considerable  distance  towards  the  north,  stands 
another  house,  numbered  83  on  the  door,  remarkable  both  for 
its  plan  and  its  decorations.    It  was  excavated  in  1847.  In 


a  room  of  the  peristyle  was  discovered  a  painting,  now  re- 
moved to  the  Museum,  in  wdiicli  was  depicted  a  writing-tablet, 
style,  inkstand,  reed,  and  seal,  with  the  following  words : 
M,  Lucretio  Flam,  Martis  Dccurioni  Pompei ;  whence  it  has 
been  inferred  that  the  house  belonged  to  one  Marcus  Lucretius, 
a  Flamen  of  Mars  and  Decurio  of  Pompeii. 

A  striking  architectural  arrangement  of  this  dwelling  is, 
that  the  peristyle  is  on  a  considerably  higher  level  than  the 
atrium  and  tablinum,  so  that  the  spectator  inunediately  on 
entering  is  struck  wdth  a  perspective  view  of  the  fountain  at 
the  bottom  of  the  peristyle.  Tliis  house,  for  its  size  and  de- 
corations, is  among  the  most  important  in  Pompeii,  but  its 


HOUSE  OF  LUCRETIUS. 


457 


arrangement  is  irregular  and  capricious,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  annexed  ground  plan.  The  front  is  almost  entirely 
occupied  by  shops,  1,  2,  3.  The  prothyrum  5,  succeeding 
the  vestibule,  4,  is  adorned  with  paintings:  that  on  the  right 
side  representing  a  woman  crowned  with  ivy  and  playing  on 
the  double  flute,  whilst  a  drunken  man  leans  on  her  shoulder ; 
whence  the  house  has  sometimes  been  called  the  Casa  delle 
Suonatrici,  or  House  of  the  Female  Musicians.  Opposite  this 


Plan  of  House  of  Lucretius. 


painting  may  be  observed  the  lower  part  of  another,  repre- 
senting Ceres  with  two  torches.  On  the  same  walls  are  also 
three  llacchantes.  The  floor,  which  ascends  rapidly  from  the 
street  to  the  atrium,  7,  has  a  pavement  of  white  and  black 
mosaic.  On  the  left  of  the  prothyrum  is  the  porter" s  lodge, 
6,  having  a  communication  with  it  as  well  as  with  the 
atrium. 

The  Tuscan  atrium  is  decorated  with  fantastic  architec- 
tural views,  with  tritons,  hippocampi,  and  centaurs.     It  is 


458 


POMPEII. 


surrounded  with  four  bedchambers,  9,  10,  11,  12,  two  aZce, 
or  wings,  13,  11,  and  the  tablinum  at  the  bottom,  16.  The 
impluvium,  in  rough  masonry,  appears  to  have  been  repairing 
at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  Pompeii.  On  the  right, 
after  j)^^^ssing  the  prothyrum,  may  be  observed  a  lararium,  8, 
the  niche  of  w^hich,  elevated  on  a  base  between  three  and 
four  feet  in  height,  had  two  columns,  and  was  richly  orna- 
mented with  coloured  stuccos.  In  it  were  found  three  little 
bronze  figures,  among  them  a  Hercules.  The  bedchambers 
are  adorned  with  paintings.  In  those  on  the  right  are 
depicted  Chiron  and  Achilles;  Thalia  and  Melpomene;  a 
nymph ;  Psyche  in  a  long  robe,  stretching  forth  her  arms 
towards  a  lion  ;  Cyparissa  seated  by  her  hind,  which  regards 
her  with  affection ;  Bacchus,  with  radiated  head,  and  clothed 
in  a  woman's  robe,  placing  his  foot  on  an  elephant's  head, 
with  other  figures.  Also  Cupids  and  arabesques  elegantly 
executed. 

Beyond  these  chambers  the  right  ala,  14,  is  entered.  The 
panels  of  the  walls,  originally  painted  yellow,  have  turned  red 
from  the  effects  of  the  heat.  Seven  pictures  which  originally 
adorned  this  apartment  have  been  removed  to  the  Museum. 
Among  those  remaining  may  be  observed  a  Cupid,  gracefully 
holding  a  crown  above  his  head.  A  thyrsus  and  a  small 
fillet  are  leaning  against  a  large  vase,  whilst  on  the  ground 
are  cymbals,  a  tambourine,  and  a  scenic  mask.  Above  this 
picture  is  another  representing  a  man  with  a  crown,  seated, 
his  legs  covered  with  a  chlamys,  discoursing  with  another 
masked  figure.  By  the  side  of  the  first  man  is  a  scrinium  for 
books. 

A  large  opening  in  this  wing  leads  into  a  magnificent  tri- 
clinium, 15,  which  was  adorned  with  three  fine  paintings,  two 
of  which  have  been  removed  to  the  Museum.  One  of  these, 
with  figures  as  large  as  life,  represented  Bacchus  in  a  car 
drawn  by  oxen,  supported  by  Silenus.  and  surrounded  by 
Satyrs  and  other  Bacchic  figures.  The  subject  of  another 
picture  was  Hercules  and  Omphale ;  the  third,  which  still 
remains,  represents  a  Bacchanalian  procession  :  it  is  near  a 
large  window  opening  on  the  xystus.  It  is  easy  to  see  that 
these  three  pictures,  as  well  as  others  in  the  same  house,  were 
not  painted  on  the  walls  but  inserted  into  them. 

The  two  bedchambers  on  the  left  of  the  atrium,  11,  12, 


HOUSE  OF  LUCRETIUS. 


459 


also  contained  paintings,  two  of  wliicli,  representing  Narcissus 
admiring  himself  in  the  water,  and  Phryxus  and  Helle,  have 
been  removed  to  the  Museum.  Among  those  still  remaining 
may  be  observed  two  pictures  of  Venus,  a  Satyr  lifting  thd 
robe  of  a  sleeping  nymph,  Cupid  delivering  a  letter  to  Poly- 
phemus, medallion  heads  of  Jupiter,  Juno,  Mars,  and  Venus, 
&c.  The  left  wing  beyond  these  chambers,  I'd,  had  also 
paintings,  which  are  now  almost  effaced.  This  ala  com- 
municated with  a  kitchen  and  bakehouse,  and  other  offices, 
17,  18,  19,  20.  In  the  kitchen,  20,  were  found  divers 
culinary  utensils,  a  pastry  mould,  and  a  cylindrical  iron 
oven. 

The  tablinum  has  a  pavement  of  black  and  white  mosaic, 
with  a  centre-piece  of  coloured  marbles,  in  the  middle  of 
which  is  a  round  piece  of  giallo  aniico  surrounded  with  a 
garland  of  coloured  mosaics.  The  walls  were  painted  with 
architectural  subjects,  and  have  spaces  for  two  great  paintings, 
which  have  either  been  carried  away,  or  had  not  yet  been 
fixed  in  their  places,  at  the  time  when  Pompeii  was  over- 
whelmed— a  proof  tliat  the  houses  were  sometimes  adorned 
with  moveable  pictures.* 

To  tlie  left  of  the  tablinum  are  the  fauces,  or  corridor,  22, 
with  a  flight  of  eight  steps  to  ascend  to  the  level  of  the  peri- 
style. On  these  steps  was  found  a  skeleton.  The  walls  are 
adorned  with  paintings  of  birds  and  masks.  On  the  red  part 
of  a  pillar  at  one  of  the  angles  of  the  i)eristyle  was  a  laby- 
rintli,  and  the  following  grajfito  rudely  traced  with  a  style 
Lahyrinthus.  Hie  hahitai  Minotaurus.  The  graffito  is  now 
removed.  On  the  left  of  this  corridor  is  a  sort  of  store- 
closet,  21. 

The  viridarium,  or  garden,  in  the  middle  of  the  peristyle,  is 
adorned  with  two  fountains.  That  at  the  end,  30,  resembling 
a  little  chapel,  is  ornamented  with  mosaics  and  shells,  and  is 
surmounted  by  a  small  white  marble  statue  of  Silenus,  which 
still  retains  traces  of  having  been  painted.  Tlie  wine-skin 
on  which  he  leans  was  coloured  black  From  it  issued  a  jet 
of  water,  which,  falling  in  a  cascade  down  five  marble  steps, 
ran  down  a  channel  to  the  circular  basin  in  the  middle  of  the 
xystus.    In  the  centre  of  this  basin  is  a  column,  which  also 


*  Breton,  Pompeia,  p.  321, 


460 


po:mi»eii. 


threw  up  2ijet  d'eau.  On  each  side  of  the  up23er  foimtain  are 
marble  cippi  surmounted  by  liermes  with  two  faces.  One  of 
these  represents  Bacchus  and  Ariadne ;  the  other  a  Faun  and 
a  Bacchante.  Similar  hermes  are  likewise  placed  in  the 
opposite  corners  of  the  peristyle,  having  heads  of  the  bearded 
Bacchus,  and  a  Bacchante.  Around  the  central  basin  are 
arranged  small  sculj^tures,  in  wdiich  no  proportion  of  relative 
size  is  observed,  and  w^hich  vary  much  in  execution.  The 
best  among  them  are  two  Fauns,  one  of  which  lifts  his  hand 
to  his  head ;  the  other,  which  terminates  like  a  hermes,  has 
under  his  left  arm  a  kid,  and  in  his  right  hand  a  syrinx,  or 
pan-pipe.  A  she-goat,  erect  at  his  feet,  seems  entreating  for 
her  young  one.  In  the  centre  of  the  group,  facing  the 
tablinum,  is  Cupid  extracting  a  thorn  from  the  foot  of  Pan. 
Eound  the  basin  are  other  figures  of  Cupid  on  a  dolphin, 
stags,  cows,  water-fowl,  &c.  All  these  figures  seem  to  have 
been  connected  with  the  fountain  and  to  have  thrown  jets  of 
water. 

The  left  side  of  the  portico  of  the  peristyle  is  divided  into 
two  little  cabinets,  23,  24,  which  may  probably  have  formed 
a  library.  The  first  cabinet  has  a  picture,  almost  efiaced,  of 
Venus  and  Cupid.  In  the  second  was  found  the  picture  of 
writing  materials  already  described,  from  which  was  inferred 
the  name  of  the  master  of  the  house. 

At  the  bottom  of  this  left  side  of  the  portico  is  an  open 
space,  31,  probably  a  sort  of  court,  with  a  staircase  leading 
to  an  upper  floor.  To  the  left  of  this  is,  as  it  were,  another 
small  house,  but  communicating  through  its  tablinum,  32,  as 
well  as  with  a  corridor  or  fauces^  with  the  house  w^e  are 
describing.  Its  entrance,  39,  opened  upon  a  little  street 
running  at  right  angles  to  the  Street  of  Stabiae.  We  have 
already  had  examples  of  this  kind  of  double  house.  On 
each  side  of  the  prothyrum  w^as  a  bedchamber,  37,  38,  and 
another,  34,  next  to  the  tablinum.  The  atrium,  paved  with 
opus  Signinum,  had  a  small  compluvium  in  the  centre,  33. 
On  its  right  side,  from  the  prothyrum,  are  two  small  recesses, 
or  closets,  35,  36  ;  on  the  wall  opposite  to  them  was  a  large 
painting,  now  almost  effaced. 

Eetm^ning  to  the  first  portion  of  the  house,  we  find  at  the 
bottom  of  the  peristyle  two  apartments,  25,  26,  which  probably 
served  as  bedchambers.   They  are  paved  with  opiis  Signinum, 


HOUSE  OF  LUCRETIUS. 


461 


intermixed  with  little  pieces  of  marble.  The  pictures  with 
which  they  were  ornamented  have  either  been  removed  or 
are  very  much  damaged.  The  last  room  on  the  right,  27, 
was  perhaps  a  wardrobe,  with  a  latrina  at  the  bottom  of  it. 
Next  to  this,  at  the  further  right-hand  corner  of  the  peristyle, 
is  a  staircase,  28,  which  seems  to  have  led  to  the  cellar.  The 
large  apartment,  29,  which  occupies  the  greater  portion  of 
the  right-hand  side  of  the  peristyle,  is  thought  by  some  to 
have  been  an  oecus  or  exedra,  while  others  have  taken  it  for 
a  summer  triclinium.  The  latter  opinion  is  favoured  by  the 
circumstance  that  in  this  apartment  were  found  three  little 
one-handled  amphorae,  on  one  of  which  was  painted  in  black 
letters,  TYSCOLA  (  ...  ON)  OFFICINA  SCAV;  and 
on  the  others,  LIQYAMEN.*  Several  other  articles  were 
found  on  the  occasion  of  this  scavo,  made  in  the  presence  of 
Queen  Christina  of  Spain,  May  22nd,  1847. 

Adjoining  the  house  of  Lucretius  are  several  shops.  That 
next  door  but  one  appears  to  have  belonged  to  a  chemist  or 
colour-malver.  On  the  right  of  the  atrium  is  a  triple  furnace, 
constructed  for  the  reception  of  three  large  cauldrons  at 
different  levels,  which  were  reached  by  steps.  The  house 
contained  a  great  quantity  of  carbonised  drugs.  At  the  sides 
of  the  entrance  were  two  shops  for  the  sale  of  the  manufac- 
tured articles.  In  one  of  these  shops  w^as  discovered,  some 
yards  below  the  old  level  of  the  soil,  the  skeleton  of  a  woman 
with  two  bracelets  of  gold,  two  of  silver,  four  earrings,  five 
rings,  forty-seven  gold,  and  one  hundred  and  ninety-seven 
silver  coins,  in  a  purse  of  netted  gold. 

The  space  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Street  of  the 
Augustals,  on  the  south  by  the  Vicoletto  del  Calcidico,  on 
the  east  by  the  Street  of  Stabije,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Street  of  Eumachia,  running  at  the  back  of  the  buiklings  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Forum,  contains  some  of  the  most  recent 
excavations.  Of  these  however  we  shall  select  for  descrip- 
tion only  a  few  of  the  more  important.  It  is  not  the  main 
object  of  this  work  to  serve  as  a  guide,  but  to  give  a  general 
idea  of  Pompeii ;  and  it  would  be  tedious  for  the  general 
reader  to  repeat  details  which  necessarily  have  much  sameness. 

At  the  back  of  the  new,  or  Stabiasn  Baths,  already  described, 


Pomp,  Antiq.  Hist.,  vol.  ii.  p.  465, 


462 


POMPEII. 


a  small  street  has  been  cleared  out  running  parallel  with  that 
of  Stabile,  and  extending  from  the  Street  of  the  Augustals 
to  that  of  Abundance,  which  it  enters  just  opposite  to  the 
Street  of  the  Theatres.  This  new  street,  or  rather  lane,  for 
it  is  very  narrow,  has  obtained  the  name  of  Via  del  Lupanare, 
from  a  Lupanar,  or  brothel,  situated  in  about  the  middle  of 
it.  Passing  down  this  street  from  the  Street  of  Abundance, 
the  visitor  finds  on  the  right,  just  beyond  the  back  wall  of  the 
Thermae  Stabianae,  the  entrance  of  a  handsome  dwelling. 
An  inscription  in  red  letters  on  the  outside  wall  containing 
the  name  of  Siricus  has  occasioned  the  conjecture  that  this 
was  the  name  of  the  owner  of  the  house;  wliile  a  mosaic 
inscription  on  the  floor  of  the  prothyrum,  having  the  words 
Salve  Lucru,  has  given  rise  to  a  second  appellation  for  the 
dwelling.  The  name  of  Siricus  was  also  found  on  a  pilaster 
at  the  principal  entrance  of  the  house  in  the  Via  Stabiana. 
It  has  also  been  called  the  House  of  the  Eussian  Princes, 
from  some  excavations  made  here  in  1851  in  j)resence  of  the 
sons  of  the  Emperor  of  Eussia.*  By  some  authorities  how- 
ever the  House  of  the  Eussian  Princes  is  described  as  a 
separate  one ;  but  at  all  events  they  communicate  with  each 
other. 

A  door  on  the  right  of  the  prothyrum  leads  into  a  room 
having  towards  the  street  a  window  protected  by  an  iron 
grating,  and  at  too  great  a  height  from  the  floor  to  allow  any 
one  to  look  through  it.  The  walls  are  white,  divided  into 
compartments  by  red  lines  and  candelabra.  In  the  middle 
of  them  are  griffins,  swans,  discs,  among  fantastical  pieces  of 
architecture,  &c. 

The  walls  of  the  atrium  are  covered  merely  with  a  coarse 
white  plaster,  which  forms  a  striking  contrast  with  the  elegant 
paintings  of  the  adjacent  apartments.  The  white  marble 
impluvium  is  very  handsome.  In  the  middle,  probably,  was 
a  jet  d'eau ;  at  top  stand  two  marble  tables  and  a  plinth, 
designed  apparently  to  support  a  small  statue,  through  which 
also  rose  a  jet  cVeau.  On  the  right  of  the  impluvium  is  a 
puteal  of  Tiburtine  stone.  At  the  wall  on  the  same  side  was 
a  sort  of  wooden  press  or  cupboard,  to  hold  domestic  utensils, 
of  which  many  were  found  here. 


*  Giornale  degli  Scavi,  No.  1 3,  p.  4. 


HOUSE  OF  SIRICUS. 


463 


Opposite  the  entrance,  in  the  place  of  the  tablimim,  was 
an  undecorated  apartment,  which  seems  to  have  served  for  a 
counting-house  or  office.  The  bones  of  a  dog  and  many 
objects  were  found  in  this  room;  among  them  a  bronze  seal, 
with  the  letters  SIRICI  in  relief,  and  a  large  and  handsome 
gold  ring,  having  a  cornelian  engraved  with  the  head  of  a 
man. 

On  the  left  of  the  prothyrum  is  an  apartment  with  two 
doors,  one  opening  on  a  wooden  staircase  leading  to  an  upper 
floor,  the  other  f(3rming  the  entry  to  a  room  next  the  street, 
with  a  window  like  that  described  in  the  other  room  next  the 
prothyrum.  The  walls  of  this  chamber  are  white,  divided 
by  red  and  yellow  zones  into  compartments,  in  which  are  * 
depicted  the  symbols  of  the  princi2)al  deities —as  the  eagle 
and  globe  of  Jove,  the  peacock  of  Juno,  the  lance,  helmet, 
and  shield  of  Minerva,  the  panther  of  Bacchus,  a  Sphinx, 
having  near  it  the  mystical  chest  and  sistrum  of  Isis,  who 
was  the  Venus  Physica  of  the  Pompeians.  the  caducous  and 
other  emblems  of  Mercury,  &c.  There  are  also  two  small 
landscapes. 

Next  to  this  is  a  large  and  handsome  exedra,  decorated 
with  good  pictures,  a  third  of  the  size  of  life.  That  on  the 
left  represents  Neptune  and  Apollo  presiding  at  the  building 
of  Troy :  the  former,  armed  with  his  trident,  is  seated  ;  the 
latter,  crow^ned  with  laurel,  is  on  foot,  and  leans  witli  his 
right  arm  on  a  lyre. 

On  the  wall  opposite  to  this  is  a  picture  of  Vulcan  pre- 
senting the  arms  of  Achilles  to  Thetis.  The  celebrated 
shield  is  supported  by  Vulcan  on  the  anvil,  and  disphxyed  to 
Thetis,  who  is  seated,  whilst  a  winged  female  figure  standing 
at  her  side  points  out  to  her  with  a  rod  the  marvels  of  its 
workmanship.  Agreeably  to  the  Homeric  description,  the 
shield  is  encircled  witli  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  aud  in  the 
middle  are  the  bear,  the  dragon,  &c.  On  the  ground  are  the 
breast-plate,  the  greaves,  and  the  helmet. 

In  the  third  j)icture  is  seen  Hercules  crowned  with  ivy, 
inebriated,  and  lying  on  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  a  cypress 
tree.  He  is  clothed  in  a  sandjj.c,  or  short  transparent  tunic, 
and  ha^  on  his  feet  a  sort  of  shoes,  one  of  which  he  has  kicked 
off.  He  supports  himself  on  his  left  arm,  while  the  right  is 
raised  in  drunken  ecstacy.     A  little  Cupid  plucks  at  his 


464 


POMPEII. 


garland  of  ivy,  another  tries  to  drag  away  his  ample  goblet. 
In  the  middle  of  the  picture  is  an  altar  with  festoons.  On  the 
top  of  it  three  Cupids,  assisted  by  another  who  has  climbed 
up  the  tree,  endeavour  to  bear  on  their  shoulders  the  hero's 
quiver ;  while  on  the  ground,  to  the  left  of  the  altar,  four 
other  Cupids  are  sporting  with  his  club.  A  votive  tablet 
with  an  image  of  Bacchus  rests  at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  and 
indicates  the  god  to  whom  Hercules  has  been  sacrificing. 


Hercules  Drunk. 


On  the  left  of  the  picture,  on  a  little  eminence,  is  a  group 
of  three  females  round  a  column  having  on  its  top  a  vase. 
The  chief  and  central  figure^  which  is  naked  to  the  waist, 
has  in  her  hand  a  fan ;  slic^  seems  to  look  with  interest  on 
the  drunken  hero,  but  whom  she  represents  it  is  difficult  to 
say.    On  the  right,  half  way  up  a  mountain,  sits  Bacchus, 


HOUSE  OF  SIRICUS. 


465 


looking  on  the  scene  with  a  complacency  not  unmixed  with 
surprise.  He  is  surrounded  by  his  usual  rout  of  attendants, 
one  of  whom  bears  a  thyrsus.  The  annexed  engraving  will 
convey  a  clearer  idea  of  the  picture,  which  for  grace,  grandeur 
of  composition,  and  delicacy  and  freshness  of  colouring,  is 
among  the  best  discovered  at  Pompeii.  The  exedra  is  also 
adorned  with  many  other  paintings  and  ornaments,  which  it 
would  be  too  long  to  describe. 

On  the  same  side  of  the  atrium,  beyond  a  passage  leading 
to  a  kitchen  with  an  oven,  is  an  elegant  triclinium  /hiestratam 
looking  upon  an  adjacent  garden.  The  walls  are  black, 
divided  by  red  and  yellow  zones,  with  candelabra  and  archi- 
tectural members  intermixed  with  quadi-upeds,  birds,  dol- 
phins, Tritons,  masks,  &c.,  and  in  the  middle  of  each 
compartment  is  a  Bacchante.  In  each  wall  are  three  small 
paintings  executed  with  greater  care.  The  first,  which  has 
been  removed,  represented  ^neas  in  his  tent,  who,  accom- 
panied by  Mnestheus,  Achates,  and  young  Ascanius,  presents 
his  thigh  to  the  surgeon,  lapis,  in  order  to  extract  from  it 
the  barb  of  an  arrow.  iEneas  supports  himself  with  the 
lance  in  his  right  hand,  and  leans  with  the  other  on  thu 
shoulder  of  his  son,  who,  overcome  by  his  father's  misfortune, 
wipes  the  tears  from  his  eyes  with  the  hem  of  his  robe ; 
while  lapis,  kneeling  on  one  leg  before  the  hero,  is  intent  on 
extracting  the  barb  with  his  forceps.  But  the  wound  is  not 
to  be  healed  without  divine  interposition.  In  the  back- 
ground of  the  picture  Venus  is  hastening  to  her  son's  relief, 
bearing  in  her  hand  the  branch  of  dictamnus  which  is  to 
restore  him  to  his  pristine  vigour. 

The  subject  of  the  second  picture,  which  is  much  damaged, 
is  not  easy  to  be  explained.  It  represents  a  naked  hero, 
armed  with  sword  and  spear,  to  whom  a  woman  crowned  with 
laurel  and  clothed  in  an  ample  ]jej)lum  is  pointing  out 
another  female  figure.  The  latter  expresses  by  her  gestures 
her  grief  and  indignation  at  the  warrior's  departure,  the 
imminence  of  which  is  signified  by  the  chariot  that  awaits 
him.  Signer  Fiorelli  thinks  he  recognizes  in  this  picture 
Turnus,  Lavinia,  and  Amata,  when  the  queen  supplicates 
Turnus  not  to  fight  with  the  Trojans. 

The  third  painting  represents  Hermaphroditus  surrounded 
by  six  nymphs,  variously  employed. 

2  H 


466 


POMPEII. 


From  the  atrium  a  narrow /awces  or  corridor  led  into  the 
garden.  Three  steps  on  the  left  connected  this  part  of  the 
house  with  the  other  and  more  magnificent  portion  having  its 
entrance  from  the  Strada  Stabiana.  The  garden  was  sur- 
rounded on  two  sides  with  a  portico,  on  the  right  of  which 
are  some  apartments  which  do  not  require  particular  notice. 

The  house  entered,  at  a  higher  level,  by  the  three  steps  just 
mentioned,  was  at  first  considered  as  a  separate  house,  and  as 
we  have  said,  has  been  called  the  House  of  the  Eussian 
Princes,  from  some  excavations  made  here  in  1851  in  presence 
of  the  sons  of  the  Emperor  of  Kussia.  The  peculiarities 
observable  in  this  house  are  that  the  atrium  and  peristyle  are 
broader  than  they  are  deep,  and  that  they  are  not  separated 
by  a  tablinum  and  other  rooms,  but  simply  by  a  wall.  In 
the  centre  of  the  Tuscan  atrium,  entered  from  the  Street  of 
Stabiae,  is  a  handsome  marble  impluvium.  At  the  top  of  it  is 
a  square  cippus,  coated  with  marble,  and  having  a  leaden 
pipe  which  flung  the  water  into  a  square  vase  or  basin 
supported  by  a  little  base  of  white  marble,  ornamented  with 
acanthus  leaves.  Beside  the  fountain  is  a  table  of  the  same 
material,  supported  by  two  legs  beautifully  sculptured,  of  a 
chimsera  and  a  grif&n.  On  this  table  was  a  little  bronze  group 
of  Hercules  armed  with  his  club,  and  a  young  Phrygian 
kneeling  before  him. 

From  the  atrium  the  peristyle  is  entered  by  a  large  door. 
It  is  about  forty-six  feet  broad  and  thirty-six  deep,  and  has 
ten  columns,  one  of  which  still  sustains  a  fragment  of  the 
entablature.  The  walls  were  painted  in  red  and  yellow 
j)anels  alternately,  with  figures  of  Latona,  Diana,  Bacchantes, 
&c.  At  the  bottom  of  the  peristyle,  on  the  right,  is  a  tri- 
clinium. In  the  middle  is  a  small  cecus,  with  two  pillars 
richly  ornamented  with  arabesques.  A  little  apartment  on 
the  left  has  several  pictures. 

In  this  house,  at  a  height  of  seventeen  Neapolitan  palms 
(nearly  fifteen  feet)  from  the  level  of  the  ground,  were  dis- 
covered four  skeletons  together  in  an  almost  vertical  position. 
Twelve  palms  lower  was  another  skeleton,  with  a  hatchet 
near  it.  This  man  appears  to  have  j)ierced  the  wall  of  one 
of  the  small  chambers  of  the  prothyrum,  and  was  about  to 
enter  it,  when  he  was  smothered,  either  by  the  falling  in  of 
the  earth  or  by  the  mephitic  exhalations.  It  has  been  thought 


ELEPHANT  INN — CAUPONA. 


467 


that  these  persons  perished  while  engaged  in  searching  for 
valuables  after  the  catastrophe.* 

In  the  back  room  of  a  thermopolium  not  far  from  this  spot 
was  discovered  a  graffito  of  part  of  the  first  line  of  the  ^neid, 
in  which  the  rs  were  turned  into  Zs  : 

Alma  vilumque  caiio  Tlo.f 

We  will  now  return  to  the  house  of  Siricus.  Contiguous  to 
it  in  the  Via  del  Lupanare  is  a  building  having  two  doors 
separated  with  pilasters.  By  way  of  sign,  an  elephant  was 
painted  on  the  wall,  enveloped  by  a  large  serpent  and  tended 
by  a  pigmy.  Above  was  the  inscription  :  Sittius  resfcituit 
elephantum  ;  and  beneath  the  following  : — 

Ho6i)itium  liic  locatur 
Triclinium  cum  tiibus  lectis 
Et  comm. 

Both  the  painting  and  the  inscription  have  now  disai^peared. 
The  discovery  is  curious,  as  proving  that  the  ancients  used 
signs  for  their  taverns.  Orelli  has  given  in  his  Inscriptions'!^ 
in  Gaul,  one  of  a  Cock  (a  Gallo  Gallinacio).  In  that  at 
Pompeii  the  last  word  stands  for  "  commodis."  Here  is  a 
triclinium  with  three  beds  and  other  conveniences." 

Just  opposite  the  gate  of  Siricus  was  another  house  also 
supposed  to  be  a  caupona,  or  tavern,  from  some  chequers 
painted  on  the  door-posts.  On  the  wall  are  depicted  two 
large  serpents,  the  emblem  so  frequently  met  with.  They 
were  the  symbols  of  the  Lares  viales,  or  compitales,  and,  as 
we  have  said,  rendered  the  place  sacred  against  the  commis- 
sion of  any  nuisance.  The  cross,  which  is  sometimes  seen  on 
the  walls  of  houses  in  a  modern  Italian  city,  serves  the  same 
purpose.  Above  the  serpents  is  the  following  inscription,  in 
tolerably  large  white  characters  :  Otiosis  locus  hie  non  est, 
discede  morator.  Lingerer,  depart ;  this  is  no  place  for 
idlers."  An  injunction  by  the  way  which  seems  rather  to 
militate  against  the  idea  of  the  house  having  been  a  tavern. 

*  A  loo,  Jiuines,  d'C,  p.  137. 

t  It  should  be  meutioned,  however,  that  the  Jourmil  of  the  superintendent 
of  the  scavi  gives  them  written  in  the  usual  way : — 
Arma  virumque  cano  Tro, 
See  Pomp.  Ant.  Hist,,  t.  ii.  p.  543. 

X  t.  ii.  p.  270,  No.  4329-30.    Cf.  Fiorelli. 


468 


POMPEII. 


The  inscription  just  mentioned  suggests  an  opportunity 
for  giving  a  short  account  of  similar  ones ;  we  speak  not  of 
inscriptions  cut  in  stone,  and  affixecl  to  temples  and  other 
public  buildings,  but  such  as  were  either  painted,  scrawled  in 
charcoal  and  other  substances,  or  scratched  with  a  sharp  point, 
such  as  a  nail  or  knife,  on  the  stucco  of  walls  and  pillars. 
Such  inscriptions  afford  us  a  peep  both  into  the  public  and 
the  domestic  life  of  the  Pompeians.  Advertisements  of  a 
political  character  were  commonly  painted  on  the  exterior 
walls  in  large  letters  in  black  and  red  paint ;  poetical  effusions 
or  pasquinades,  &c.,  with  coal  or  chalk  (Martial,  Ejjig.  xii. 
61,  9) ;  while  notices  of  a  domestic  kind  are  more  usually 
found  in  the  interior  of  the  houses,  scratched,  as  we  have 
said,  on  the  stucco,  whence  they  have  been  called  graffiti 

The  numerous  j)olitical  inscriptions  boar  testimony  to  the 
activity  of  public  life  in  Pompeii.  These  advertisements, 
which  for  the  most  part  turn  on  the  election  of  aediles, 
duumvirs,  and  other  magistrates,  show  that  the  Pompeians,  at 
the  time  when  their  city  was  destroyed,  were  in  all  the 
excitement  of  the  approaching  comitia  for  the  election  of 
such  magistrates.  We  shall  here  select  a  few  of  the  more 
interesting  inscriptions,  both  relating  to  public  and  domestic 
matters,  from  those  collected  by  Overbeck  in  the  second 
volume  of  his  valuable  work  on  Pomj)eii  (ch.  6). 

It  seems  to  have  been  customary  to  paint  over  old  advertise- 
ments with  a  coat  of  white,  and  so  to  obtain  a  fresh  sui-face 
for  new  ones,  just  as  the  London  bill-sticker  remorselessly 
pastes  his  bill  over  that  of  some  brother  of  the  brush.  In 
some  cases  this  new  coating  has  been  detached,  or  has  fallen 
off",  thus  revealing  an  older  notice,  belonging  sometimes  to  a 
period  antecedent  to  the  Social  War.  Inscriptions  of  this 
kind  are  found  only  on  the  solid  stone  pillars  of  the  more 
ancient  buildings,  and  not  on  the  stucco,  with  which  at  a 
later  period  almost  everything  was  plastered.  Their  antiquity 
is  fm'ther  certified  by  some  of  them  being  in  the  Oscan 
dialect:  while  those  in  Latin  are  dstinguished  from  more 
recent  ones  in  the  same  language  by  the  forms  of  the  letters, 
by  the  names  which  appear  in  them,  and  by  archaisms  in 
grammar  and  orthography.  Inscriptions  in  the  Greek  tongue 
ai-e  rare,  though  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  scratched 
on  walls  at  a  little  height  from  the  groimd.  and  thus  evidently 


INSCRIPTIONS 


469 


the  work  of  sclioolboys,  show  that  Greek  must  have  been 
extensively  taught  at  Pompeii. 

The  normal  form  of  electioneering  advertisements  contains 
the  name  of  the  person  recommended,  the  office  for  which  he 
is  a  candidate,  and  the  name  of  the  person,  or  persons,  who 
recommended  him,  accompanied  in  general  with  the  formula 
O.V.F.  From  examples  written  in  full,  recently  discovered, 
it  appears  that  these  letters  mean  or  at  (or  or  ant)  vos  faciatis : 
"  beseech  you  to  create  "  (aedile  and  so  forth).  The  letters  in 
question  were,  before  this  discovery,  very  often  thought  to 
stand  for  orat  ut  faveat,  "  begs  him  to  favour  and  thus  the 
meaning  of  the  inscription  was  entirely  reversed,  and  the 
person  recommending  converted  into  the  person  recom- 
mended.*' In  the  following  example  for  instance — M.  Hol- 
conium  Priscum  duumvirum  juri  dicundo  O.V.F.  Philippus ; 
the  meaning,  according  to  the  older  interpretation,  will  be : 
"  Philippus  beseeches  M.  Holconius  Prisons,  duumvir  of 
justice,  to  favour  or  patronize  him whereas  the  true  sense 
is :  "  Philippus  beseeches  you  to  create  M.  Holconius  Prisons 
a  duumvir  of  justice."  From  this  misinterpretation  wrong 
names  have  frequently  been  given  to  houses  ;  as  is  probably 
the  case,  for  instance,  with  the  house  of  Pansa,|  which,  from 
the  tenour  of  the  inscription,  more  probably  belonged  to 
Paratus,  who  posted  on  his  own  walls  a  request  to  passers-by 
to  make  his  friend  l^ansa  ?edile.  Had  it  been  the  house  of 
Pansa,  when  a  cnndidate  for  the  aedileship,  and  if  it  was  the 
custom  for  such  candidates  to  post  recommendatory  notices 
on  their  doors,  it  may  be  supposed  that  l^ansa  would  have  ex- 
hibited more  than  this  single  one  from  a  solitary  friend. 
This  is  a  more  probable  meaning  than  that  Paratus  solicited 
in  this  way  the  patronage  of  Pansa ;  for  it  would  have  been  a 
bad  method  to  gain  it  by  disfiguring  his  walls  in  so  imper- 
tinent a  manner.  We  do  not  indeed  mean  to  deny  that 
adulatory  inscriptions  were  sometimes  written  on  the  houses 
or  doors  of  powerful  or  popular  men  or  pretty  women.  A 
verse  of  Plautus  bears  testimony  to  such  a  custom  (Impleantur 
meae  foreis  elogiorum  carbonibus.  Mercator,  act  ii.  sc.  3). 
But  first,  the  inscription  on  the  so-called  house  of  Pansa 
was  evidently  not  of  an  adulatory,  but  of  a  recommendatory 

*  Compare  the  editor's  note  at  p.  80,  Pai  t  I. 
t       above,  p.  318. 


470 


POMPEII. 


character  ;  and  secondly,  those  of  the  former  kind,  as  we 
learn  from  this  same  verse,  seem  to  have  been  written  by 
passing  admirers,  with  some  material  ready  to  the  hand,  such 
as  charcoal  or  the  like,  and  not  painted  on  the  walls  vdih 
care,  and  time,  and  expense ;  a  proceeding  which  we  can 
hardly  think  the  owner  of  the  house,  if  he  was  a  modest  and 
sensible  man,  would  have  tolerated. 

Eecommendations  of  candidates  were  often  accompanied 
with  a  word  or  two  in  their  praise;  as  digmis,  or  dignissimus 
est.  probissimus,  juvenis  integer,  frugi,  omni  bono  meritus,  and 
the  like.  Such  recommendations  are  sometimes  subscribed 
by  guilds  or  corporations,  as  well  as  by  private  persons,  and 
show  that  there  were  a  great  many  such  trade  unions  at 
Pompeii.  Thus  we  find  mentioned  the  offectores  (dyers), 
2?isiores  (bakers),  aurifices  (goldsmiths),  pomarii  (fruiterers), 
ccBparii  (greengrocers),  Ugnarii  (wood  merchants),  jjlostrarii 
(cart-wrights),  inscicapi  (fishermen),  agncolce  (husbandmen). 
muUoues  (muleteers),  culinaru  (cooks),  fullones'  (fullers),  and 
others.  Advertisements  of  this  sort  appear  to  have  been  laid 
hold  of  as  a  vehicle  for  street  ^\'it,  just  as  electioneering  squibs 
are  perpetrated  among  oiu'selves.  Thus  we  find  mentioned, 
as  if  among  the  companies,  the  jrAUcrein  (ball-players),  the 
seribibi  (late  topers),  the  dormientes  unkersi  (all  the  worshipful 
company  of  sleepers),  and  as  a  climax,  Pompeiani  unkersi  (all 
the  Pompeians,  to  a  man,  vote  for  so  and  so).  One  of  these 
recommendations,  purporting  to  emanate  from  a  "  teacher  "  or 
"  professor,"  rims,  Valentms  cum  discentes  suos  (Yalentius  vrith 
his  disciples)  ;  the  bad  grammar  being  probably  intended  as 
a  gibe  upon  one  of  the  poor  man's  weak  points. 

The  inscriptions  in  chalk  and  coal,  the  graffiti,  and  occa- 
sionally painted  inscriptions,  contain  sometimes  well-known 
verses  from  poets  still  extant.  Some  of  these  exhibit  varia- 
tions from  tlie  modern  text,  but  being  written  by  not  very 
highly  educated  persons,  they  seldom  or  never  present  any 
various  readings  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  adopt,  and 
indeed  contain  now  and  then  prosodical  errors.  ■  Other  verses, 
some  of  them  by  no  means  contemptible,  are  either  taken 
from  pieces  now  lost,  or  are  the  invention  of  the  writer  him- 
seK.  Many  of  these  inscriptions  are  of  course  of  an  amatory 
character ;  some  convey  intelligence  of  not  much  importance 
to  anybody  but  the  wi-iter — as,  that  he  is  troubled  with  a 


GRAFFITI. 


471 


cold — or  was  seventeen  centuries  ago — or  that  he  considers 
somebody  who  does  not  invite  him  to  supper  as  no  better 
than  a  brute  and  barbarian,  or  invokes  blessings  on  the  man 
that  does.  Some  are  capped  by  another  hand  with  a  biting 
sarcasm  on  the  first  writer,  and  many,  as  might  be  expected, 
are  scurrilous  and  indecent.  Some  of  the  graffiti  on  the 
interior  walls  and  pillars  of  houses  are  memorandums  of 
domestic  transactions ;  as,  how  much  lard  was  bought,  how 
many  tunics  sent  to  the  wash,  when  a  child  or  a  donkey  was 
born,  and  the  like.  One  of  this  kind,  scratched  on  the  wall 
of  the  peristyle  of  the  corner  house  in  the  Strada  clella  Fortium 
and  Vicolo  degli  Scienziati,  appears  to  be  an  account  of  the 
disjpenscdor  or  overseer  of  the  tasks  in  spinning  allotted  to 
the  female  slaves  of  the  establishment,  and  is  interesting  as 
furnishing  us  with  their  namc^s,  which  are  Yitalis,  Florentina, 
AmaruUis,  Januaria,  Heracla,  Maria  (Maria,  feminine  of 
Marius,  not  Maria),  Lalagia  (remind'ing  us  of  Horace's 
Lalage),  Damalis,  and  Doris.  The  jjensuin,  or  weight  of  wool 
delivered  to  each  to  be  spun,  is  spelt  j^^^sa,  the  n  and  hnal  m 
being  omitted,  just  as  we  find  salve  lucru,  for  lucrum,  written 
on  the  threshold  of  the  house  of  Siricus.  In  this  form,  2^csu 
is  very  close  to  the  Italian  word  j)eso. 

We  have  already  alluded  now  and  then  to  the  rude  etchings 
and  caricatures  of  these  wall-artists,  but  to  enter  fully  into 
the  subject  of  the  Pompeian  inscriptions  and  grajdi  would 
almost  demand  a  separate  Volume,  and  we  must  therefore 
resume  the  thread  of  our  description. 

A  little  beyond  the  house  of  Siricus,  a  small  street,  running- 
down  at  right  angles  from  the  direction  of  the  Forum,  enters 
the  Via  del  Lupanare.  Just  at  their  junction,  and  having 
an  entrance  into  both,  stands  the  Lupanar,  from  which  the 
latter  street  derives  its  name.  We  cannot  venture  upon  a 
description  of  this  resort  of  Pagan  immorality.  It  is  kept 
locked  up,  but  the  guide  will  procure  the  key  for  those  who 
may  wish  to  see  it.*  Next  to  it  is  the  House  of  the  Fuller, 
in  which  was  found  the  elegant  little  bronze  statuette  of 
Narcissus,  now  in  the  Museum.  The  house  contained  nothing 
else  of  interest. 

The  Via  del  Lupanare  terminates  in  the  Street  of  the 

*  There  is  an  account  of  its  arrangement  and  inscriptions  in  Fiorelli's 
Gioniale,  Ko.  14.,  p.  48,  seq. 


472 


POMPEII. 


Augustals,  or  of  the  Dried  Fruits.  In  this  latter  street, 
nearly  opj)osite  the  end  of  the  Via  del  Lupanare,  but  a  little 
to  the  left,  is  the  House  of  Narcissus,  or  of  the  Mosaic 
Fountain.  This  house  is  one  of  the  most  recent  excavations 
in  Pompeii,  having  been  cleared  out  in  1865.  At  the 
threshold  is  a  mosaic  of  a  bear,  with  the  word  Have,  The 
prothyrum  is  painted  with  figures  on  a  yellow  ground.  On 
the  left  is  a  medallion  of  a  satyr  and  nymph ;  the  opposite 
medallion  is  destroyed. 

The  atrium  is  paved  with  mosaic.  The  first  room  on  the 
right-hand  side  of  it  has  a  picture  of  Narcissus  admiring 
himself  in  the  water.  The  opposite  picture  has  a  female 
figure  seated,  with  a  child  in  her  arms,  and  a  large  chest 
open  before  her.  The  tablinum  is  handsomely  paved  with 
mosaic  and  marble.  Behind  this,  in  place  of  a  peristyle,  is  a 
court  or  garden,  the  wall  of  which  is  painted  with  a  figure 
bearing  a  basin.  At  the  bottom  is  a  handsome  mosaic 
fountain,  from  which  the  house  derives  one  of  its  names,  with 
a  figure  of  Neptune  surrounded  by  fishes  and  sea-fowl ;  above 
are  depicted  large  wild  boars. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  way,  at  the  eastern  angle  of  the 
Street  of  the  Lupanar,  is  the  House  of  the  Eudder  and  Trident, 
also  called  the  House  of  Mars  and  Yenus.  The  first  of  these 
names  is  derived  from  the  mosaic  pavement  in  the  prothyrum, 
in  which  the  objects  mentioned  are  represented;  while  a 
medallion  picture  in  the  atrium,  with  heads  of  Mars  and 
Venus,  gave  rise  to  the  second  appellation.  The  colours  of 
this  picture  are  still  quite  fresh,  a  result  which  Signer 
Fiorelli  attributes  to  his  having  caused  a  varnish  of  wax  to 
be  laid  over  the  painting  at  the  time  of  its  discovery.*  With- 
out some  such  protection  the  colours  of  these  pictures  soon 
decay;  the  cinnabar,  or  vermilion,  especially,  turns  black  after 
a  few  days'  exposure  to  the  light. 

The  atrium,  as  usual,  is  surrounded  with  bedchambers.  A 
peculiarity  not  yet  found  in  any  other  house  is  a  niche  or 
closet  on  the  left  of  the  atrium,  having  on  one  side  an  opening 
only  large  enough  to  introduce  the  hand,  whence  it  has  been 
conjectured  that  it  served  as  a  receptacle  for  some  valuable 
objects.    It  is  painted  inside  with  a  wall  of  quadrangular 


*  Giornale,  No.  15,  p.  89. 


HOUSE  OF  THE  BALCONY. 


473 


pieces  of  marble  of  various  colours,  terminated  at  top  with  a 
cornice.    In  each  of  the  squares  is  a  fish,  bird,  or  quadruped. 

This  closet  or  niche  stands  at  the  door  of  a  room  in  which 
is  an  entrance  to  a  subterranean  passage,  having  its  exit  in  the 
Via  del  Lupanare.  There  is  nothing  very  remarkable  in  the 
other  apartments  of  this  house.  Behind  is  a  peristyle  with 
twelve  columns,  in  the  garden  of  which  shrubs  are  said  to 
have  been  discovered  in  a  carbonized  state. 

Further  down  the  same  Street  of  the  Augustals,  at  the 
angle  which  it  forms  with  the  Street  of  Stabise,  is  the  house 
of  a  baker,  having  on  the  external  wall  tlie  name  Modestum 
in  red  letters.  For  a  tradesman  it  seems  to  liave  been  a 
comfortable  house,  having  an  atrium  and  fountain,  and  some 
painted  chambers.  Beyond  the  atrium  is  a  spacious  court 
with  mills  and  an  oven.  The  oven  was  charged  with  more 
than  eighty  loaves,  the  forms  of  which  are  still  perfect, 
though  they  are  reduced  to  a  carbonaceous  state.  They  are 
preserved  in  the  Museum. 

The  narrow  street  to  which  we  have  alluded,  as  entering 
the  Via  del  Lupanare  nearly  opposite  to  the  house  of  Siricus, 
has  been  called  the  Via  del  Balcone.  from  a  small  house  with 
a  projecting  balcony,  or  maenianum.  Indications  of  balconies 
have  been  found  elsewhere,  and  indeed  there  were  evidently 
some  in  the  Via  del  Lupanare ;  but  this  is  the  only  instance 
of  one  restored  to  its  pristine  state,  tlirough  the  care  of  Signer 
Fiorelli  in  substituting  fredi  timbers  for  those  which  had 
become  carbonized.  The  visitor  may  ascend  to  tlie  first  floor 
of  this  house,  from  which  the  balcony  projects  several  feet 
into  the  narrow  lane.  In  the  atrium  of  this  house,  of  which 
we  annex  an  engraving  on  p.  474,  is  a  very  pretty  fountain. 

The  house  next  to  that  of  the  Balcony,  facing  tlie  entrance 
of  a  small  street  leading  from  the  Via  dell  Abbondanza,  and 
numbered  7  on  the  door-post,  has  a  few  pictures  in  a  tolerable 
state  of  preservation.  In  a  painting  in  the  furthest  room  on 
the  left  of  the  atrium  Theseus  is  seen  departing  in  his  ship ; 
Ariadne,  roused  from  sleep,  gazes  on  him  with  desj)air,  while 
a  little  weeping  Cupid  stands  by  her  side.  In  the  same 
apartment  are  two  other  well-ju-eserved  pictures,  the  subjects 
of  which  it  is  not  easy  to  explain.  In  one  is  a  female  dis^jlay- 
ing  to  a  man  two  little  Cupidn  in  a  nest,  while  four  other 
figures  are  looking  on.    The  other  is  sometimes  called  the 


HOU.b'E  OF  THE  BALCONY. 


475 


Eape  of  Helen.  There  are  also  several  medallion  heads 
around. 

In  the  small  street  which  runs  parallel  with  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Forum^  called  the  Yico  di  Eumachia,  is  a  house 
named  the  Casa  niwva  delta  Caccia,  to  distinguish  it  from  one 
of  the  same  name  previously  discovered.  As  in  the  former 
instance,  its  appellation  is  derived  from  a  large  painting  on 
the  wall  of  the  peristyle,  of  bears,  lions,  and  other  animals. 
On  the  right-hand  wall  of  the  tablinum  is  a  picture  of  Bacchus 
discovering  Ariadne.  A  satyr  lifts  her  vest,  while  Silenus 
and  other  figures  look  on  in  admiration.  The  painting  on  the 
left-hand  wail  is  destroyed.  On  entering  the  peristyle  a  door 
on  the  right  leads  down  some  steps  into  a  garden,  on  one  side 
of  which  is  a  small  altar  before  a  wall,  on  which  is  a  painting 
of  shrubs. 

Proceeding  from  this  street  into  the  Vico  Storto,  which 
forms  a  continuation  of  it  on  the  north,  we  find  on  the  right 
a  recently  excavated  house,  which,  from  several  slabs  of 
variously  coloured  marbles  found  in  it,  has  been  called  the 
House  of  the  Dealer  in  Marbles.  Under  a  large  court  in  the 
interior,  surrounded  with  Doric  columns,  are  some  subter- 
ranean apartments,  in  one  of  which  was  discovered  a  well 
more  than  eighty  feet  deep,  and  still  supplied  with  fresh 
water  ;  almost  the  only  instance  of  the  kind  at  Pompeii.  The 
beautiful  statuette  of  Silenus,  already  described,  was  found  in 
this  house.  Here  also  was  made  the  rare  discovery  of  the 
skeletons  of  two  horses,  with  the  remains  of  a  higa. 

This  description  might  be  extended,  but  it  would  be  tedious 
to  repeat  details  of  smaller  and  less  interesting  houses,  the 
features  of  which  present  in  general  much  uniformity  ;  and 
we  shall  therefore  conclude  this  account  of  the  more  recent 
discoveries  with  a  notice  of  a  group  of  bodies  foimd  in  this 
neighbourhood,  the  forms  of  which  have  been  preserved  to  us 
through  the  ingenuity  of  Signer  Fiorelli. 

It  has  been  already  remarked  that  the  showers  of  lapillo^ 
or  pumice-stone,  by  which  Pompeii  was  overwhelmed  and 
buried,  were  followed  by  streams  of  a  thick,  tenacious  mud, 
which  flowing  over  the  deposit  of  lapillo,  and  filling  up  all 
the  crannies  and  interstices  into  wdiich  that  substance  had  not 
been  able  to  penetrate,  completed  the  destruction  of  the  city. 
The  objects  over  which  this  mud  flowed  were  enveloped  in  it 


PLASTER  CASTS. 


477 


as  in  a  plaster  mould  ;  and  where  these  objects  happened  to 
be  human  bodies,  their  decay  left  a  cavity  in  which  their 
forms  were  as  accui'ately  preserved  and  rendered  as  in  the 
mould  prepared  for  the  casting  of  a  bronze  statue.  Such 
cavities  had  often  been  observed.  In  some  of  tliem  remnants 
of  charred  wood,  accompanied  with  bronze  or  other  ornaments, 
showed  that  the  object  inclosed  had  been  a  piece  of  furniture  ; 
while  in  others,  the  remains  of  bones  and  of  articles  of  aj^parel 
evinced  but  too  plainly  that  the  hollow  had  been  the  living 
grave  which  had  swallowed  vip  some  unfortunate  human 
being.  In  a  happy  moment  the  idea  occurred  to  Signor 
Fiorelli  of  filling  up  these  cavities  with  liquid  plaster,  and 
thus  obtaining  a  cast  of  the  objects  which  had  been  inclosed 
in  them.  The  experiment  was  first  made  in  a  small  street 
leading  from  the  Via  del  Balcone  Pensile  towards  the  Forum. 
The  bodies  here  found  were  on  the  lapillo  at  a  height  of  about 
fifteen  feet  from  the  level  of  the  ground.  The  story  of  their 
discovery  has  been  so  admirably  told  in  the  article  in  the 
Quarterly  Meiiew  before  referred  to,*  that  we  shall  again 
trespass  on  its  pages. 

Among  the  first  casts  thus  obtained  were  those  of  foui' 
human  beings.  They  are  now  preserved  in  a  room  at 
Pompeii,  "I*  and  more  ghastly  and  painful,  yet  deej^ly  interest- 
ing and  touching  objects,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive.  We  have 
death  itself  moulded  and  cast — the  very  last  struggle  and 
final  agony  brought  before  us.  They  tell  their  story  with  a 
horrible  dramatic  truth  that  no  sculptor  could  ever  reach. 
They  would  have  furnished  a  thrilling  episode  to  the  accom- 
plished author  of  the  '  Last  Days  of  Pompeii.' 

These  four  persons  had  perished  in  a  street.  They  had 
remained  within  the  shelter  of  their  homes  until  the  thick 
black  mud  began  to  creep  through  every  cranny  and  chink. 
Driven  from  their  retreat,  they  began  to  flee  when  it  was  too 
late.  The  streets  were  already  buried  deep  in  the  loose 
pumice-stones  which  had  been  falling  for  many  hours  in  un- 
remitting showers,  and  which  reached  almost  to  the  windows 
of  the  first  floor.  '1  hese  victims  of  the  eruption  were  not 
found  together,  and  they  do  not  appear  to  have  belonged  to 
the  same  family  or  household.     The  most  interesting  of  the 

No.  230,  p.  382. 
t  In  the  street  leading  to  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum. 


478 


POMPEIL- 


casts  is  that  of  two  women,  probably  mother  and  daughter, 
lying  feet  to  feet.  They  appear  from  their  garb  to  have  been 
people  of  poor  condition.  The  elder  seems  to  lie  tranquilly 
on  her  side.  Overcome  by  the  noxious  gases,  she  probably 
fell  and  died  without  a  struggle.  Her  limbs  are  extended, 
and  her  left  arm  drops  loosely.  On  one  finger  is  still  seen 
her  coarse  iron  ring.  Her  child  was  a  girl  of  fifteen ;  she 
seems,  poor  thing,  to  have  struggled  hard  for  life.  Her  legs 
are  drawn  up  convulsively ;  her  little  hands  are  clenched  in 
agony.  In  one  she  holds  her  veil,  or  a  part  of  her  dress, 
with  which  she  had  covered  her  head,  burying  her  face  in  her 
arm,  to  shield  lierself  from  the  falling  ashes  and  from  the 
foul  sulphurous  smoke.  The  form  of  her  head  is  perfectly 
preserved.  The  texture  of  her  coarse  linen  garments  may  be 
traced,  and  even  the  fashion  of  her  dress,  with  its  long  sleeves 
reaching  to  her  wrists ;  here  and  there  it  is  torn,  and  the 
smooth  young  skin  appears  in  the  plaster  like  polished  marble. 
On  her  tiny  feet  may  still  be  seen  her  embroidered  sandals. 

At  some  distance  from  this  group  lay  a  third  woman.  She 
appears  to  have  been  about  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  to 
have  belonged  to  a  better  class  than  the  other  two.  On  one 
of  her  fingers  were  two  silver  rings,  and  her  garments  were 
of  a  finer  texture.  Her  linen  head-dress,  falling  over  her 
shoulders  like  that  of  a  matron  in  a  Eoman  statue,  can  still 
be  distinguished.  She  had  fallen  on  her  side,  overcome  by 
the  heat  and  gases,  but  a  terrible  struggle  seems  to  have  pre- 
ceded her  last  agony.  One  arm  is  raised  in  despair  ;  the 
hands  are  clenched  convulsively ;  her  garments  are  gathered 
up  on  one  side,  leaving  exposed  a  limb  of  beautiful  shape. 
So  perfect  a  mould  of  it  has  been  formed  by  the  soft  and 
yielding  mud,  that  the  cast  would  seem  to  be  taken  from  an 
exquisite  work  of  Greek  art.  She  had  fled  with  her  little 
treasure,  which  lay  scattered  around  her — two  silver  cups,  a 
few  jewels,  and  some  dozen  silver  coins;  nor  had  she,  like  a 
good  housewife,  forgotten  her  keys,  after  having  probably 
locked  up  her  stores  before  seeking  to  escape.  They  were 
found  by  her  side. 

"  The  fourth  cast  is  that  of  a  man  of  the  people,  perhaps  a 
common  soldier.  He  is  of  almost  colossal  size ;  he  lies  on 
his  back,  his  arms  extended  by  his  side  and  his  feet  stretched 
out  as  if,  finding  escape  impossible,  he  had  laid  himself  down 


LATEST  EXCAVATION. 


479 


to  meet  death  like  a  brave  man.  His  dress  consists  of  a  short 
coat  or  jerkin  and  tiglit-fitting  breeches  of  some  coarse  stuff, 
perhaps  leather ;  heavy  sandals,  with  soles  studded  with 
nails,  are  laced  tightly  round  his  ankles.  On  one  finger  is 
seen  his  iron  ring.  His  features  are  strongly  marked,  the 
mouth  open,  as  in  death.  Some  of  the  teeth  still  remain,  and 
even  part  of  the  moustache  adheres  to  the  plaster. 

The  importanco  of  Signor  Fiorelli's  discovery  may  be 
understood  from  the  results  we  have  described.  It  may 
furnish  us  with  many  curious  particulars  as  to  the  dress  and 
domestic  habits  of  the  Eomans,  and  with  many  an  interesting 
episode  of  the  last  day  of  Pompeii.  Had  it  been  made  at  an 
earlier  period  we  might  perhaps  have  possessed  the  perfect 
cast  of  the  Diomedes,  as  they  clung  together  in  their  last 
struggle,  and  of  other  victims  whose  remains  are  now  mingled 
together  in  the  bone-house." 

We  shall  conclude  this  account  with  stating  that  the  house 
now  excavating  (February,  1866)  nearly  opposite  the  new 
baths,  in  a  street  leading  out  of  the  Via  Stabiana,  and  forming 
a  continuation  of  those  of  Abundance  and  of  Holconius, 
appears  to  be  one -of  considerable  magnificence.  The  pave- 
ment before  the  entrance  is  raised,  and  is  ascended  by  three 
steps.  On  entering  a  noble  atrium  presents  itself,  having  an 
inipluvium  with  no  fewer  than  sixteen  columns.  On  the 
right  is  a  handsome  lararium,  purporting  to  be  erected  by  two 
freedmen  of  Diadumenus.  We  await  with  much  interest  the 
excavation  of  this  house,  which  promises  to  be  among  the 
handsomest  of  Pompeii.  The  following  additional  particu- 
lars have  been  kindly  supplied  by  the  editor  of  Murray's 
'  Handbook  for  South  Italy.'  "  Three  human  skeletons  have 
been  discovered  in  this  house,  with  their  gold  and  silver 
ornaments — a  very  handsome  gold  ring  set  with  an  amethyst 
intaglio  of  an  Abundance,  a  silver  ring,  a  gold  and  silver 
bracelet,  &c.  The  paintings  in  the  room  opening  out  of  the 
tablinum  are  graceful,  and  rejn-esent  Apollo  and  certain 
Muses.  Among  the  peculiarities  of  this  house  (besides  the 
raised  pavement)  are  the  small  porter's  lodge  in  the.  prothy- 
rum,  and  the  four  elongated  windows,  with  bronze  frame  > 
for  glass,  in  the  rooms  on  each  side  of  the  entrance." 


480 


POMPEII. 


Poi  Licu  ul  ibe  HuUsc  ulDiwm.des,  witu  a  view  ol  the  Atiium  beyond. 


CHAPTEE  X. 

SUBURBAN  VILLA. 

The  most  interesting,  and  by  far  the  most  extensive  of  the 
private  buildings  yet  discovered,  is  the  Subui'ban  Villa,  as  it 
is  called,  from  its  position  a  little  way  "^dthout  the  gates,  in 
the  Street  of  the  Tombs,  which  led  tj,  or  formed  part  of,  the 
suburb  called  Augustus  Felix.  Excavations  were  made  in 
this  j)art  of  the  town  in  1771,  and  the  t  .vo  or  three  following 
years,  when  this  villa  was  discovered.*  It  is  worthy  of  remark 
that  the  plan  of  this  edifice  is  in  close  acccord  with  the  de- 
scriptions of  country  houses  given  us  by  Yitruvius  and  others 
— a  ciix'umstance  which  tends  strongly  to  confirm  the  belief 

*  See  Pomp.  Aid.  Hist.,  t.  i.  p.  257,  s^q. 


SUBURBAN  VILLA. 


481 


already  expressed,  'that  the  houses  of  the  city  are  built  upon 
tlie  Eoman  system  of  arrangement,  although  the  Greek  taste 
may  predominate  in  their  decoration.  We  will  commence  by 
extracting  the  most  important  passages  in  Pliny  the  Younger's 
description  of  his  Laurentine  villa,  that  the  reader  may  have 
some  general  notion  of  the  subject,  some  standard  with  which 
to  compare  that  which  we  are  about  to  describe. 

"My  villa  is  large  enough  for  convenience,  though  not 
splendid.  The  first  apartment  which  presents  itself  is  a  plain, 
yet  not  mean,  atrium  ;  then  comes  a  portico,  in  shape  like  the 
letter  0,  which  surrounds  a  small,  but  pleasant  area.  This  is 
an  excellent  retreat  in  bad  weather,  being  sheltered  by  glazed 
windows,*  and  still  more  effectually  by  an  overhanging  roof. 
Opposite  the  centre  of  this  portico  is  a  pleasant  cavaedium, 
after  which  comes  a  handsome  triclinium,  which  projects  upon 
the  beach,  so  that  when  the  south-west  wind  urges  the  sea, 
the  last  broken  waves  just  dash  against  its  walls.  On  every 
side  of  this  room  are  folding  doors,  or  windows  equally  large, 
so  that  from  the  three  sides  there  is  a  view,  as  it  were,  of  three 
seas  at  once,  while  backwards  the  eye  wanders  through  the 
apartments  already  described,  the  cavsedium,  portico,  and 
atrium,  to  woods  and  distant  mountains.  To  the  left  are 
several  apartments,  including  a  bedchamber,  and  room  fitted 
up  as  a  library,  which  jets  out  in  an  elliptic  form,  and,  by  its 
several  windows,  admits  the  sun  during  its  whole  course. 
These  apartments  I  make  my  winter  abode.  The  rest  of  this 
side  of  the  house  is  allotted  to  my  slaves  and  freedmen,  yet 
it  is  for  the  most  part  neat  enough  to  receive  my  friends. 
To  the  right  of  the  triclinium  is  a  very  elegant  chamber, 
and  another,  which  you  may  call  either  a  very  large  chamber 
{cuhiculum),  or  moderate-sized  eating-room  (coenatio),  which 
commands  a  full  prospect  both  of  the  sun  and  sea.  Passing 
hence,  through  three  or  four  other  chambers,  you  enter  the  cella 
frigidaria  of  the  baths,  in  which  there  are  two  basins  pro- 
jecting from  opposite  walls,  abundantly  large  enough  to  swim 
in,  if  you  feel  inclined  to  do  so  in  the  first  instance.  Then 
come  the  anointing-room,  the  hypocaust,  or  furnace,  and  two 

*  Sjrecularibus.  Wliether  glass  windows  or  talc  windows  (lapis  specularis) 
were  meant,  is  a  controverted  point.  We  are  inclined  to  believe  the  latter, 
although  glass  windows  were  unquestionably  in  use  before  the  date  of  this  letter, 
as  is  proved  by  the  e^cavatious  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 

2  I 


482 


POMPEII. 


small  rooms ;  next  the  warm  bath,  which  commands  an  ad- 
mirable view  of  the  sea.  Not  far  off  is  the  sjphceristerium,  a 
room  devoted  to  in-door  exercises  and  games,  exposed  to  the 
hottest  sun  of  the  declining  day.  Beside  it  is  a  triclinium, 
where  the  noise  of  the  sea  is  never  heard  but  in  a  storm,  and 
then  faintly,  looking  out  upon  the  garden  and  the  gestatio,  or 
place  for  taking  the  air  in  a  carriage  or  -litter,  which  encom- 
passes it.  The  gestatio  is  hedged  with  box,  and  with  rose- 
mary where  the  box  is  wanting ;  for  box  grows  well  where  it 
is  sheltered  by  buildings,  but  withers  when  exposed  in  an 
open  situation  to  the  wind,  and  especially  within  reach  of 
spray  from  the  sea.  To  the  inner  circle  of  the  gestatio  is 
joined  a  shady  walk  of  vines,  soft  and  tender  even  to  the 
naked  feet.  The  garden  is  full  of  mulberries  and  figs,  the 
soil  being  especially  suited  to  the  former.  Within  the  circuit 
of  the  gestatio  there  is  also  a  cryptoportico,  for  extent  com- 
1) arable  to  public  buildings,  having  windows  on  one  side 
looking  to  the  sea,  on  the  other  to  the  garden.  In  front  of  it 
is  a  xystus,  fragrant  with  violets,  where  the  sun's  heat  is 
increased  by  reflection  from  the  cryptoportico,  which,  at  the 
same  time,  breaks  the  north-east  wind.  At  either  end  of  it  is 
a  suite  of  apartments,  in  which,  in  truth,  I  place  my  chief 
delight."*  Such  was  one  of  several  villas  described  by  Pliny. 
The  directions  given  by  Vitruvius  for  building  country  houses 
are  very  short.  "  The  same  principles,"  he  says,  "  are  to  be 
observed  in  country  houses  as  in  town  houses,  except  that  in 
the  latter  the  atrium  lies  next  to  the  door,  but  in  pseudo- 
urban  houses  the  peristyles  come  first,  then  atria  smTounded 
by  paved  porticoes,  looking  upon  courts  for  gymnastic  exercises 
and  walking  "  {jpalmtras  et  amhulutiones),'\  It  will  appear 
that  the  distribution  of  the  Suburban  Villa  was  entirely  in 
accordance  with  these  rules. 

The  house  is  built  upon  the  side  of  the  hill,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  ground  falls  away,  not  only  in  the  line  of  the 
street,  across  the  breadth  of  the  house,  but  also  from  the  front 
to  the  back,  so  that  the  doorway  itself  being  elevated  from 
five  to  six  feet  above  the  roadway,  there  is  room  at  the  back 

*  Plin.  Ep.  lib.  ii.  17.  We  have  reiy  much  shortened  the  original,  leaving 
m\i  the  description  of,  at  least,  one  upper  floor,  and  other  particulars  which  did 
not  appear  necessary  to  the  illustration  of  our  subject. 

t  Vitruvius,  vi.  8. 


SUBURBAN  VILLA. 


483 


of  the  house  for  an  extensive  and  magnificent  suite  of  rooms 
between  the  level  of  the  peristyle  and  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
These  two  levels  are  represented  on  the  same  plan,  being  dis- 
tinguished by  a  difference  in  the  shading.  The  darker  parts 
show  the  walls  of  the  upper  floor,  the  lighter  ones  indicate 
the  distribution  of  the  lower.  A  further  distinction  is  made 
in  the  references,  which  are  by  figures  to  the  upper  floor,  and 
by  letters  to  the  lower.  There  are  besides  subterraneous 
vaults  and  galleries  not  expressed  in  the  plan. 

1.  Broad  foot  pavement  raised  nine  inches  or  a  foot  above 
the  carriage  way,  running  along  the  whole  length  of  the 
Street  of  Tombs.  2.  Inclined  planes,  leading  up  to  the  porch 
on  each  side.  3.  Entrance.  4.  Peristyle.  This  arrangement 
corresponds  exactly  with  the  directions  of  Vitruvius  for  the 
building  of  country  houses  just  quoted.  The  order  of  the 
peristyle  is  extremely  elegant.  The  columns,  their  capitals, 
and  entablatures,  and  the  paintings  on  the  walls  are  still  in 
good  preservation.  The  architectural  decorations  are  worked 
in  stucco  ;  and  it  is  observed  by  Mazois  that  both  here  and  in 
other  instances  the  artist  has  taken  liberties,  which  he  would 
not  have  indulged  in  had  he  been  working  in  more  valuable 
materials.  On  this  ground  that  eminent  architect  hazards  a 
conjecture  that  the  plasterer  had  a  distinct  style  of  orna- 
menting, different  from  that  of  architects,  or  ol  the  masons  in 
their  employ.  The  lower  third  of  the  columns,  which  is  not 
fluted,  is  painted  red.  The  pavement  was  formed  of  ojqus 
Signinum.  5.  Uncovered  court  with  an  impluvium,  which 
collected  the  rain  water  and  fed  a  cistern,  whence  the  common 
household  wants  were  supplied.  6.  Descending  staircase, 
which  led  to  a  court  and  building  on  a  lower  level,  appro- 
priated to  the  offices,  as  the  kitchen,  bakehouse,  &c.,  and  to 
the  use  of  slaves.  It  will  be  recollected  that  the  ground 
slopes  with  a  rapid  descent  away  from  the  city  gate.  This 
lower  story,  therefore,  was  not  under  ground,  though  near 
eight  feet  below  the  level  of  the  peristyle.  It  communicates 
with  the  road  by  a  back  door.  From  the  bottom  of  the  stair 
there  runs  a  long  corridor.  A,  somewhat  indistinct  in  our 
small  plan,  owing  to  its  being  crossed  several  times  by  the 
dark  lines  of  the  upper  floor,  which  leads  down  by  a  gentle 
slope  to  the  portico  surrounding  the  garden.  This  was  tho 
back  stair,  as  we  should  call  it,  by  which  the  servants  com- 


484 


POMPEII. 


Ground-plau  of  tlie  Suburban  Villa  of  Diomedes. 


SUBUEBAN  VILLA. 


485 


mtmicated  with  that  part  of  the  house.  There  was  another 
staircase,  B,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  house,  for  the  use  of 
the  family.  7.  Door  and  passage  to  the  upper  garden,  marked 
17,  on  the  same  level  as  the  court.  8.  Open  hall,  corre- 
sponding in  position  with  a  tablinum.  Being  thus  placed 
between  the  court  and  the  gallery,  28,  it  must  have  beer 
closed  with  folding  doors  of  wood,  which  perhaps  were  glazed. 
9,  10,  11,  12.  Various  rooms  containing  nothing  remarkable, 
13.  Two  rooms  situated  in  the  most  agreeable  manner  at  the 
two  ends  of  a  long  gallery,  28,  and  looking  out  upon  the  upper 
terraces  of  the  garden,  from  which  the  eye  took  in  the  whole 
gulf  of  Naples  to  the  point  of  Sorrento,  and  the  island  of 
Capreae.  14.  Procaeton,  or  antechamber.  15.  Lodge  of  the 
cubicular  slave,  or  attendant  upon  the  bedroom.  16.  Bed- 
room, probably  that  of  the  master,  or  else  the  state-chamber. 
6.  Alcove.  Several  rings  were  found  here  which  had  evidently 
belonged  to  a  curtain  to  draw  across  the  front  of  it.  c.  Hollow 
stand  or  counter  of  masonry,  probably  coated  with  stucco  or 
marble,  which  served  for  a  toilet-table.  Several  vases  were 
found  there,  which  must  have  contained  perfumes  or  cosmetic 
oils.  The  form  of  this  bedroom  is  very  remarkable,  and  will 
not  fail  to  strike  the  reader  from  its  exact  correspondence 
with  the  elliptic  chamber  or  library  described  by  Pliny  in  his 
Laurentine  villa.  The  windows  in  the  semicircular  end  are 
so  placed  that  they  receive  the  rising,  noontide,  and  setting 
sun.  Bull's  eyes,  placed  above  the  windows,  permitted  them 
to  be  altogether  closed  without  darkening  the  room  entirely. 
These  windows  opened  on  a  garden,  where,  in  Mazois'  time, 
the  care  of  the  guardian  had  planted  roses,  which  almost, 
beguiled  him  into  the  belief  that  he  had  found  the  genuine 
produce  of  a  Pompeian  garden.  This  must  have  been  a 
delightful  room,  from  its  ample  size,  elegance  of  ornament, 
and  the  quiet  cheerful  retirement  of  its  situation.^  17.  Upper 
garden  upon  the  level  of  the  court. 

18.  Entrance  to  the  baths,  which,  though  originally  rare  in 
private  houses  had  become  so  common,  long  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Pompeiij  that  few  wealthy  persons  were  without  them. 
The  word  balneum  was  peculiarly  applied  to  domestic,  iliermcc  to 
public  baths.  This  specimen,  which  fortunately  was  almost 
perfect,  small  as  it  is,  suffices  to  give  a  good  idea  of  the 
arrangement  of  private  baths  among  the  Eomans.  19.  Portico 


486 


POMPEII. 


upon  two  sides  of  a  small  triangular  court.  There  is  as  much 
skill  in  the  disposition,  as  taste  in  the  decoration,  of  this 
court,  which  presents  a  symmetrical  plan,  notwithstanding 
the  irregular  form  of  the  sj)ace  allotted  to  it.  Its  situation  is 
conformable  to  the  advice  of  Vitruvius ;  and  as  it  could  not 
front  the  west,  it  has  been  placed  to  the  south.  The  columns 
of  the  portico  are  octagonal.  At  the  extremity  of  the  gallery, 
on  the  left  of  the  entrance,  there  is  a  small  furnace  where 
was  prepared  some  warm  beverage  or  restorative  for  the  use 
of  the  bathers,  who  were  accustomed  to  take  wine  or  cordials 
before  they  w^ent  away.  Here  a  gridiron  and  two  frying-pans 
were  found,  still  blackened  with  smoke.*  Jn  the  centre  of 
the  base,  or  third  side  of  the  court,  is  placed  a  bath,  20,  about 
six  feet  square,  lined  with  stucco,  the  edge  of  which  is  faced 
with  marble.  It  w^as  covered  with  a  roof,  the  mark  of  which 
is  still  visible  on  the  walls,  supported  by  two  pillars  placed 
on  the  projecting  angles.  The  holes  in  the  walls  to  admit 
the  three  principal  beams  are  so  contrived  that  each  side  is 
lined  with  a  single  brick.  Under  this  covering  the  whole 
wall  was  painted  to  represent  water,  with  fish  and  other 
aquatic  animals  swimming  about.  The  water  was  blue,  and 
rather  deep  in  colour  :  the  fish  were  represented  in  the  most 
vivid  and  varied  tints.  Some  years  ago  this  painting  re- 
covered, on  being  wetted,  the  original  freshness  and  brilliancy 
of  its  colouring ;  but  exposure  to  the  weather  has  done  its  work, 
and  now  scarce  a  trace  of  it  remains.  In  the  middle  of  it 
there  is  a  circular  broken  space  to  which  a  mask  w^as  formerly 
attached,  through  which  a  stream  gushed  into  the  basin  below. 
Tw^o  or  three  steps  led  down  to  this  baptist erium,  where  the 
cold  bath  was  taken  in  the  open  air.  This  court  and  portico 
were  paved  in  mosaic.  21.  Apodyterium.  22.  Frigidarium. 
23.  Tepid arium.  These  two  rooms,  in  neither  of  which  was 
there  a  bathing  vessel,  show  that  frequently  rooms  thus  named 
were  not  intended  for  bathing,  but  simply  to  preserve  tw^o 
intermediate  gradations  of  temperature,  between  the  burning 
heat  of  the  caldarium.  or  laconicum  and  the  open  air.  In  fact, 
no  trace  of  any  contrivance  for  the  introduction  or  reception 
of  water  has  been  found  in  No,  22.  It  was  simply  a  cold 
chamber,  cella  frigidaria.    Nor  was  the  little  chamber,  23, 


*  Bonucci. 


SUBURBAN  VILLA. 


487 


large  enough  to  receive  conveniently  a  bathing  vessel;  but 
seats  of  wood  were  found  there  for  the  convenience  of  those 
who  had  quitted  the  bath,  and  who  came  there  to  undergo 
the  discipline  of  the  strigil,  and  that  minute  process  of  puri- 
fication and  anointing  which  we  have  before  described.  This 
room  is  not  above  twelve  feet  by  six :  the  bath,  therefore, 
could  not  have  been  calculated  for  the  reception  of  more  than 
one,  or,  at  most,  of  two  persons  at  once.  Here  the  great  question 
relative  to  the  use  of  glass  windows  by  the  ancients  was 
finally  settled.  This  apartment  was  lighted  by  a  window 
closed  by  a  moveable  frame  of  wood,  which,  though  converted 
into  charcoal,  still  held,  when  it  was  found,  four  panes  of  glass 
about  six  inches  square.  A  more  elaborate  and  curious  glass 
window  was  found  at  a  later  period  in  the  public  baths. — 
See  p.  160,  Part  I.  24.  Caldarium.  It  might,  however,  be 
employed  at  pleasure  as  a  tepid  or  cold  1  ath,  when  the  weather 
was  too  cold  for  bathing  in  the  open  air.  The  suspensura 
caldariorum,  as  Vitruvius  calls  the  hollow  walls  and  floors 
raised  upon  pillars,  are  in  remarkably  good  preservation.  By 
means  of  these  the  whole  apartment  was  entirely  enveloped 
in  flame,  and  might  be  easily  raised  t3  a  most  stifling  tem- 
perature. We  have  fully  described  the  method  of  constructing 
these  in  the  chapter  upon  the  public  baths,  p.  170,  and  need 
not  here  repeat  what  has  been  said.  We  will  however  add, 
that  Vitruvius  directs  a  bed  of  clay  mixed  with  hair  to  be 
laid  between  the  pillars  and  the  pavement ;  and  some  tradition 
of  this  custom  may  be  imagined  to  subsist,  for  the  potters  of  the 
country,  in  some  cases,  work  up  wool  with  their  clay,  a  practice 
unknown  elsewhere,  as  we  believe,  in  the  art  of  pottery.  The 
burning  vapour  passed  out  above  the  ceiling,  gaining  no 
entrance  into  the  apartment.  Air  and  light  were  admitted  by 
two  windows,  one  higher  than  the  other.  In  one  of  these 
Mazois  found  a  fragment  of  glass.  The  bathing  vessel,  e, 
lined  with  stucco,  and  coated  on  the  outside  with  marble,  was 
fed  by  two  cocks,  which  must  have  been  very  small,  to  judge 
from  the  space  which  they  occupied.  Hence  hot  and  cold 
water  were  supplied  at  pleasure  ;  and  it  was  only  to  fill  the 
vessel  with  boiling  water,  and  the  whole  aj^artment  would  be 
converted  into  one  great  vapour  bath.  As  it  would  have  been 
difficult  or  impossible  to  have  kept  alive  a  lamp  or  torch  in 
so  dense  a  steam,  there  is  near  the  door  a  circular  hole,  closed 


488 


POMPEII. 


formerly  by  a  glass,  which  served  to  admit  the  light  of  a 
lamp  placed  in  the  adjoining  chamber.  The  hypocaust,  or 
furnace  and  apparatus,  25,  for  heating  the  water,  are  so 
placed  that  they  cannot  be  seen  from  the  triangular  cornet. 
They  are  small,  but  correspond  with  the  small  quantity  of 
boiling  w^ater  which  they  were  required  to  furnish,  /.  Stone 
table.  (J.  Cistern.  li.  Mouth  of  hypocaust.  i,  A  furnace, 
probably  for  boiling  water  when  merely  a  tepid  bath  was  re- 
quired, without  heating  the  susj)ensura  caldariorum.  By  the 
side  of  the  hypocaust  w-ere  placed  the  vases  for  hot  and  cold 
water,  as  described  in  the  chaj)ter  on  Baths  :  their  pedestals 
were  observable  between  the  mouth  of  the  furnace  and  the 
letter  h.  Z.  Wooden  staircase,  no  longer  in  existence,  which 
led  to  the  apartments  above.    26.  Eeservoir. 

Such  was  the  distribution  of  this  bath.  Some  paintings 
and  mosaics,  w^hich  are  ordinary  enough,  formed  its  only 
decorations ;  yet,  from  the  little  that  remains,  we  can 
discover  that  the  good  taste  which  reigned  everywhere,  and 
the  freshness  of  the  colours,  must  have  rendered  the  effect  of 
the  whole  most  agreeable. 

27.  This  chamber  seems  to  have  been  used  as  a  wardrobe, 
where  the  numerous  garments  of  the  opulent  masters  of  this 
dwelling  were  kept  under  presses,  to  give  them  a  lustre. 
This  conjecture  is  founded  upon  the  remains  of  calcined 
stuffs,  and  the  fragments  of  wardrobes  and  carbonised  plank 
found  in  the  course  of  excavation.  2:^.  Great  gallery,  lighted 
by  windows  which  looked  upon  the  two  terraces,  34,  separated 
by  the  large  hall,  33.  This  gallery  furnished  an  agreeable 
promenade,  when  the  weather  did  not  permit  the  enjoyment  of 
the  external  porticoes  or  terraces.  29,  29.  These  two  small 
apartments,  vrhich  were  open  to  the  gallery,  and  probably 
were  closed  by  glass,  may  very  well  have  been,  one  a  library, 
the  other  a  reading-room,  since  the  place  in  which  books 
were  kept  was  not  usually  the  place  in  which  they  were  read  : 
being  small  and  coniined,  suitable  to  the  comparatively  small 
number  of  volumes  which  an  ancient  library  generally  con- 
tained, and  also  to  the  limited  space  within  which  a  con- 
siderable number  of  rolls  of  papyrus  might  be  placed.  A 
bust,  painted  on  the  wall  of  one  of  them,  confirms  this 
supposition,  for  it  is  known  that  the  ancients  Vvxre  fond  of 
keeping  the  portraits  of  eminent  men  before  their  eyes,  and 


SUBURBAN  VILLA. 


489 


especially  of  placing  those  of  literary  men  in  tlieir  libraries. 
30.  The. form  of  this  hall  is  suitable  to  a  triclinium,  and  its 
situation,  protected  from  the  immediate  action  of  the  sun's 
rays,  would  seem  to  maik  it  as  a  summer  triclinium.  Still 
the  guests  enjoyed  the  view  of  the  country  and  of  the  sea, 
by  means  of  a  door  opening  upon  the  terrace.  In  front  of 
the  little  chamber,  31,  is  a  square  opening  for  the  staircase, 
which  descends  to  the  point  B  upon  the  floor  below.  It  is 
to  be  remarked,  that  at  the  entrance  of  each  division  of  the 
building  there  is  a  lodge  for  a  slave.  No  doubt  each  suite 
of  rooms  had  its  peculiar  keeper.  The  chamber,  10,  seems 
to  have  been  reserved  for  the  keeper  of  the  peristyle  ;  the 
apartment,  15,  belonged  to  the  slave  of  the  bedchamber,  who 
watched  the  apartment  of  his  master  ;  a  recess  under  the 
staircase,  35,  was,  without  doubt,  the  place  of  the  atriensis, 
or  attendant  on  the  atrium,  when  the  hall,  8,  was  open,  to 
give  admission  to  ,  the  interior  of  the  house  ;  and  when  this 
hall  was  closed,  he  attended  in  the  chamber,  12,  which 
commanded  the  entrance  through  the  passage,  or  fauces. 
Lastly,  the  small  lodge,  31,  is  so  placed  as  to  keep  watch 
over  all  communication  between  the  upper  floor,  where  is  the 
peristyle,  and  the  lower  floor,  in  which  the  aj)artments  of  the 
family  seem  to  have  been  chiefly  situated.  32.  Apartment, 
entirely  ruined,  to  which  it  is  diflicult  to  assign  a  name. 
33.  Large  cyzicene  oecus,  about  thirty-six  feet  by  twenty-six. 
All  the  windows  of  this  apartment  opened  almost  to  the  level 
of  the  floor,  and  gave  a  view  of  the  garden,  the  terraces  and 
trellises  which  ornamented  them,  as  well  as  of  the  vast  and 
beautiful  prospect  towards  the  sea  and  Vesuvius.  34.  Large 
terraces,  perhaps  formerly  covered  with  trellises,  which 
communicate  with  the  terraces  over  the  gallery  by  which  the 
garden  is  surrounded.  35.  Staircase  leading  to  the  upper 
floor,  on  which  may  have  been  the  gyna3ceum,  or  suite  of 
apartments  belonging  to  the  women.  So  retired  a  situation, 
however,  did  not  always  suit  the  taste  of  the  Eoman  ladies. 
Cornelius  Nepos  says  that  "  they  occupy  for  the  most  part 
the  first  floor  in  the  front  of  the  house."  Mazois  was  long 
impressed  with  the  idea  that  there  must  have  been  an  upper 
story  here,  but  for  a  long  time  he  could  not  find  the  staircase. 
At  last  he  discovered  in  this  place  marks  in  the  plaster, 
which  left  no  doubt  in  his  mind  but  that  it  had  existed  here, 


490 


POMPEII. 


though  being  of  wood  it  disappeared  with  the  other  wood- 
work. He  recognized  the  inclination  and  the  height  of  the 
steps,  and  found  that  they  were  high  and  narrow,  like  those 
stone  stairs  which  exist  still  in  the  same  dwelling.  36.  A 
sort  of  vestibule  at  the  entrance  of  the  building,  appropriated 
to  the  offices.  This  lower  court  probably  contained  the 
kitchen.  31.  Bakehouse,  apartments  of  the  inferior  slaves, 
stables,  and  other  accessories.  These  are  separated  from  the 
main  building  by  means  of  a  mesaulon,  or  small  internal 
court,  to  diminish  the  danger  in  case  of  a  fire  happening  in 
the  kitchen  or  bakehouse.  There  were  two  ways  of  com- 
munication from  the  level  of  the  street  to  the  level  of  the 
garden  ;  on  one  side  by  the  corridor,  A,  A,  principally 
reserved  for  the  servants,  on  the  other  by  the  staircase,  B. 
C,  C,  C.  Portico  round  the  garden.  The  side  beneath  the 
house  and  that  at  the  right  of  the  plan  are  perfectly  pre- 
served, but  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  support  the 
terrace  on  this  side  by  inserting  a  modern  pillar  between 
each  of  the  old  ones,  and  to  build  two  massive  piers  beneath 
the  terrace  on  which  the  great  cyzicene  hall  is  situated. 
This  portico  was  elegantly  ornamented.  If  we  may  judge  of 
the  whole  from  a  part,  which  is  given  by  Mazois,  the  interior 
entablature  was  ornamented  with  light  mouldings  and  run- 
ning patterns,  while  there  was  a  little  picture  over  each  pillar. 
That  in  his  plate  represents  a  swan  flying  away  with  a 
serpent.  The  pillars  were  square,  the  lower  part  painted 
with  ,  flowers  springing  from  trellises,  apparently  of  very 
delicate  execution.  The  same  style  of  painting  occurs  in 
the  court  of  the  baths.  The  ceiling  of  the  portico  beneath 
the  terrace  is,  in  respect  of  its  construction,  one  of  the  most 
curious  specimens  of  ancient  building  which  have  reached 
our  time.  It  is  a  plane  surface  of  masonry,  hung  in  the  air, 
supported  neither  on  the  principle  of  the  arch,  nor  by  iron 
cramps,  but  owing  its  existence  entirely  to  the  adherence  of 
the  mortar  by  which  it  is  cemented.  It  is  divided  into 
compartments  by  false  beams  (caissons)  of  the  same  con- 
struction. The  whole  is  of  remarkable  solidity.  D.  Open 
hall  at  the  end  of  the  western  portico.  E.  Fountain,  supplied 
perhaps  by  the  water  of  the  cistern.  There  was  formerly  a 
well  upon  the  terrace,  34,  by  which  water  might  be  drawn 
from  the  reservoir  of  this  fountain,  but  it  was  effaced  when 


SUBURBAN  VILLA. 


491 


the  area  of  the  terrace  was  restored.  F,  F,  F.  Different 
chambers,  halls,  triclinium,  in  which  the  remains  of  a  carpet 
were  found  on  the  floor,  and  other  rooms,  to  which  it  is 
difficult  to  assign  any  particular  destination.  They  are  all 
decorated  in  the  most  elegant  and  refined  manner,  but  their 
j)aintings  are  hastening  to  decay  with  a  rapidity  which  is 
grievous  to  behold.  Fortunately  the  A  cademy  of  Naples  has 
published  a  volume  of  details,  in  which  the  greater  part  of 
the  frescos  of  this  villa  are  engraved.  G.  Passage,  leading 
by  the  staircase  B  to  the  upper  floor,  and  by  the  staircase 
H  to  the  subterranean  galleries.  There  is  a  similar  stair- 
case, H,  on  the  other  side  of  the  portico.  These  galleries 
form  a  crypt  beneath  the  portico,  lighted  and  aired  by  loop- 
holes on  the  level  of  the  ground.  Amphorae,  placed  in  sand 
against  the  wall,  are  still  to  be  seen  there,  and  for  this 
reason  it  has  been  conjectured  that  the  crypt  served  the 
purposes  of  a  cellar ;  but  even  this  crypt  was  coarsely 
painted.  I.  Mesaulon,  or  coui't,  which  separates  the  offices 
from  the  house.  K.  Small  room  at  the  extremity  of  the 
garden.  L.  An  oratory  ;  the  niche  served  to  receive  a  little 
statue.  M.  Xystus,  or  garden.  N.  Piscina,  with  a  jet  cVeau, 
O.  Enclosure  covered  with  a  trellis.  P.  Door  to  the  country, 
and  towards  the  sea.  Q.  This  enclosure,  about  fifteen  feet 
wide,  appears  to  have  been  covered  with  a  trellis,  and  must 
have  been  much  frequented,  since  there  is  a  noble  flight  of 
steps  leading  down  to  it  from  the  upper  garden.  It  fronted 
the  south,  and  must  have  been  a  delightful  winter  promenade. 

We  have  given,  as  a  Frontispiece  to  this  Part,  a  general 
view  of  this  delightful  abode  as  it  now  exists,  taken  from 
the  surface  of  the  ground  behind  the  garden  portico.*  The 
parts  of  it  need  little  explanation  after  the  minute  account 
already  given.  The  arch  to  the  left  is  the  end  of  the  open 
hall,  D,  above  the  portico ;  on  each  side  are  the  terraces,  34, 
34,  and  in  the  centre  are  the  remains  of  the  cyzicene  hall. 
Beneath,  on  the  level  of  the  portico,  are  the  several  rooms 
marked  F,  probably  the  chief  summer  abode  of  the  family, 
being  well  adapted  to  that  purpose  by  their  refreshing 
coolness.  Their  ceilings  for  the  most  part  are  semicircular 
vaults,  richly  painted,  and  the  more  valuable  because  few 

*  Some  of  the  suiTounding  ac(:e>sones  are  now  altered,  from  the  progress  of 
the  excavations. 


492 


POMPEn. 


ceilings  have  been  found  in  existence.  We  should  attempt 
in  vain  to  describe  the  comj^licated  subjects,  the  intricate 
and  varied  patterns  with  which  the  fertile  fancy  of  the  ara- 
besque painter  has  clothed  the  walls  and  ceilings,  without 
the  aid  of  drawings,  w^hich  we  are  unable  to  give;  and, 
indeed,  coloured  plates  would  be  requisite  to  convey  an 
adequate  notion  of  their  effect.  In  the  splendid  work  which 
Mr.  Donaldson  has  published  upon  Pompeii,  several  subjects 
taken  from  these  rooms  will  be  found,  some  of  them  coloured, 
together  with  eight  mosaics,  some  of  very  complicated,  all  of 
elegant  design  ;  and  to  this  and  similar  works  we  must  refer 
the  further  gratification  of  the  reader's  curiosity.* 

Such  was  this  mansion,  in  which  no  doubt  the  owner  took 
pride  and  pleasure,  to  judge  from  the  expense  lavished  with 
unsparing  hand  on  its  decoration  ;  and  if  he  could  be  supposed 
to  have  any  cognizance  of  what  is  now  passing  on  earth,  his 
vanity  might  find  some  consolation  for  having  been  prema- 
turely deprived  of  it,  in  the  posthumous  celebrity  which  it 
has  obtained.  But  his  taste  and  wealth  have  done  nothing 
to  perpetuate  his  name,  for  not  a  trace  remains  that  can 
indicate  to  what  person  or  to  what  family  it  belonged.  It 
is  indeed  usually  called  the  Villa  of  Marcus  Arrius  Diomedes, 
on  the  strength  of  a  tomb  discovered  about  the  same  period 
immediately  opposite  to  it,  bearing  that  name.  No  other 
tomb  had  then  been  discovered  so  near  it,  and  on  this 
coincidence  of  situation  a  conclusion  was  drawn  that  this 
must  have  been  a  family  sepulchre,  attached  to  the  house, 
and,  by  consequence,  that  the  house  itself  belonged  to 
Diomedes.  The  conjecture  at  the  outset  rested  but  on  a 
sandy  foundation,  which  has  since  been  entirely  sapped  by 
the  discovery  of  numerous  other  tombs  almost  equally  near. 
All  that  we  know  of  the  owner  or  his  family  may  be  com- 
prised in  one  sentence,  which,  short  as  it  is,  speaks  forcibly 
to  our  feelings.  Their  life  was  one  of  elegant  luxury  and 
enjoyment,  in  the  midst  of  which  death  came  on  them  by 
surprise,  a  death  of  singular  and  lingering  agony. 

When  Vesuvius  first  showed  signs  of  the  coming  storm 
the  air  was  still,  as  we  learn  from  the  description  of  Pliny, 
and  the  smoke  of  the  mountain  rose  up  straight,  imtil  the 

*  Louis  I.  of  Bavaria  caused  a  perfect  copy  of  this  villa,  even  in  its  smallest 
details,  to  be  erected  at  Aschaffenburg. — Ed. 


SUBURBAN  VILLA. 


493 


atmospliere  would  bear  it  no  higlier,  and  then  spread  on  all 
sides  into  a  canopy,  suggesting  to  him  the  idea  of  an  enormous 
pine  tree.  After  this  a  wind  sprung  up  from  the  west,  which 
was  favourable  to  carry  Pliny  from  Misenum  to  Stabiae,  but  pre- 
vented his  return.  The  next  morning  probably  it  veered  some- 
thing to  the  north,  when,  in  the  younger  Pliny's  words,  a  cloud 
seemed  to  descend  upon  the  earth,  to  cover  the  sea,  and  hide 
the  Isle  of  Caprese  from  his  view.  The  ashes  are  said  by 
Dion  Cassius  to  have  reached  Egypt,  and  in  fact  a  line 
drawn  south-east  from  Vesuvius  would  pass  very  near  Pompeii, 
and  cut  Egypt.  It  was  probably  at  this  moment  that  the 
hail  of  fire  fell  thickest  at  Pompeii,  at  daybreak  on  the 
second  morning,  and  if  any  had  thus  long  survived  the  stifling 
air  and  torrid  earth  which  surrounded  them,  their  misery 
probably  was  at  this  moment  brought  to  a  close.  The  villa 
of  which  we  speak  lay  exactly  between  the  city  and  the 
mountain,  and  must  have  felt  the  first,  and,  if  there  were 
degrees  of  misery,  where  all  perished  alike,  the  worst  effects 
of  this  fearful  visitation.  Fearful  is  such  a  visitation  in  the 
present  day,  even  to  those  who  crowd  to  see  an  erujjtion  of 
Vesuvius  as  they  would  to  a  picture-gallery  or  an  opera : 
how  much  more  terrible,  accompanied  by  the  certainty  of 
impending  death,  to  those  whom  neither  history  nor  expe- 
rience had  familiarized  with  the  most  awful  phenomenon 
presented  by  nature.  At  this,  or  possibly  at  an  earlier 
moment,  the  love  of  life  proved  too  strong  for  the  social 
affections  of  the  owner  of  the  house.  He  fled,  abandoning  to 
their  fate  a  numerous  family,  and  a  young  and  beautiful 
daughter,  and  bent  his  way,  with  his  most  precious  move- 
ables, accompanied  only  by  a  single  slave,  to  the  sea,  which 
he  never  reached  alive.  His  daughter,  two  children,  and 
other  members  of  his  family  and  household  sought  protection 
in  the  subterranean  vaults,  which,  by  the  help  of  the  wine- 
jars  already  stored  there,  and  the  provisions  which  they 
brought  down  with  them,  they  probably  considered  as  suf- 
ficient refuge  against  an  evil  of  which  they  could  not  guess 
the  whole  extent.  It  was  a  vain  hope  :  the  same  fate  awaited 
them  all  by  different  ways.  The  strong  vaults  and  narrow 
oj^enings  to  the  day  protected  them,  indeed,  from  the  falling 
cinders ;  but  the  heat,  sufiicient  to  char  wood,  and  volatilize 
the  more  subtle  part  of  the  ashes,  could  not  be  kept  out  by 


494 


POMPEII. 


such  means.  The  vital  air  was  changed  into  a  sulphurous 
vapour,  charged  with  burning  dust.  In  their  despair,  longing 
for  the  pure  breath  of  heaven,  they  rushed  to  the  door,  already 
choked  with  scoriae  and  ruins,  and  perished  in  agonies  on 
which  the  imagination  does  not  willingly  dwell. 

This  the  reader  will  probably  be  inclined  to  think  might 
do  very  well  for  the  conclusion  of  a  romance,  but  why  invent 
such  sentimental  stories  to  figure  in  a  grave  historical  account  ? 
It  is  a  remarkable  instance,  perhaps  the  strongest  which  has 
yet  occurred,  of  the  peculiar  interest  which  the  discoveries  at 
Pompeii  possess,  as  introducing  us  to  the  homes,  nay,  to  the 
very  j)ersons  of  a  long-forgotten  age,  that  every  circumstance 
of  this  tale  can  be  verified  by  evidence  little  less  than  con- 
clusive. Beside  the  garden  gate,  marked  P,  two  skeletons 
were  found  ;  one,  presumed  to  be  the  master,  had  in  his  hand 
the  key  of  that  gate,  and  near  him  were  about  a  hundred 
gold  and  silver  coins ;  the  other,  stretched  beside  some  silver 
vases,  was  probably  a  slave  charged  with  the  transport  of 
them.  When  the  vaults  beneath  the  room,  D,  were  discovered 
at  the  foot  of  the  staircase,  H,  the  skeletons  of  eighteen  adult 
persons,  a  boy,  and  an  infant  were  found  huddled  up  together, 
unmoved  during  seventeen  centuries  since  they  sank  in 
death.*  They  were  covered  by  several  feet  of  ashes  of 
extreme  fineness,  evidently  slowly  borne  in  through  the 
vent-holes,  and  afterwards  consolidated  by  damp.  The 
substance  thus  formed  resembles  the  sand  used  by  metal 
founders  for  castings,  but  is  yet  more  delicate,  and  took 
perfect  impressions  of  everything  on  which  it  lay.  Unfortu- 
nately this  property  was  not  observed  until  almost  too  late, 
and  little  was  preserved  except  the  neck  and  breast  of  a  girl, 
which  are  said  to  display  extraordinary  beauty  of  form.  So 
exact  is  the  impression,  that  the  very  texture  of  the  dress  in 
which  she  was  clothed  is  apparent,  which  by  its  extraordinary 
fineness  evidently  shows  that  she  had  not  been  a  slave,  and 
may  be  taken  for  the  fine  gauze  which  Seneca  calls  woven 
wind.  On  other  fragments  the  impression  of  jewels  worn  on 
the  neck  and  arms  is  distinct,  and  marks  that  several  members 

*  See  Pomp,  Ant.  Hist,  t.  i.  p.  268,  Dec.  12,  1772.  Ten  other  skeletons 
were  found  at  various  times  in  or  near  the  house.  See  the  account  of  the 
excavations  in  Pomp.  Ant.  Hist.  (1771,  March  9  ;  1773,  Feb.  6,  13  ;  May  29  ; 
1774,  July  30  ;  Oct.  29  ;  Nov.  5).— Ed. 


SUBURBAN  VILLA. 


495 


of  the  family  here  perished.  The  jewels  themselves  were 
found  beside  them,  comprising,  in  gold,  two  necklaces,  one 
set  with  blue  stones,  and  four  rings,  containing  engTaved 
gems.  Two  of  the  skeletons  belonged  to  children,  and  some 
of  their  blond  hair  was  still  existent ;  most  of  them  are  said 
to  have  been  recognized  as  female.  Each  sex  probably  acted 
in  conformity  to  its  character,  the  men  trusting  to  their  own 
strength  to  escape,  the  women  waiting  with  patience  the 
issue  of  a  danger  from  which  their  own  exertions  could  not 
save  them. 

In  the  same  vault  bronze  candelabra,  and  other  articles, 
jewels,  and  coins  were  found.  Amphorae  were  also  found 
ranged  against  the  wall,  in  some  of  which  the  contents,  dried 
and  hardened  by  time,  were  still  preserved.  Archaeologists, 
it  is  said,  pretend  to  recognize  in  this  substance  the  flavour 
of  the  rich  strong  wine  for  which  the  neighbourhood  of 
Vesuvius  is  celebrated.* 

Besides  the  interior  garden  within  the  portico,  there  must 
have  been  another  garden  extending  along  the  southern  side 
of  the  house.  The  passage  from  the  peristyle,  7,  the  ^^osition 
of  the  elliptic  chamber,  16,  and  the  trellis  work,  Q,  with  its 
spacious  steps,  leave  no  doubt  on  this  subject.  It  has  been 
stated  in  a  German  periodical  that  traces  of  the  ploughshare 
have  been  distinguished  in  the  fields  adjoining  this  villa. 
This  is  the  only  authority  we  have  for  supposing  that  the 
process  of  excavation  has  been  extended  at  all  beycmd  the 
house  itself.  The  garden  to  the  south  is  still,  to  the  best  of 
our  information,  uncleared,  nor  is  it  likely  that  it  contains 
objects  of  sufficient  interest  to  recompense  the  labour  which 
would  be  consumed  in  laying  it  open.  Our  limited  knowledge 
of  ancient  horticulture  is  not  therefore  likely  to  be  increased 
by  means  of  Pompeii ;  for  such  small  flower-plots  as  are 

*  Sir  Thomas  Brown  would  have  rejoiced  in  such  an  opportunit3^  **  Some 
fine  sepulcrali  vessels  containing  liquors  which  time  hath  incrassated  into 
jellies.  For  besides  their  lachrymatories,  notable  lamps,  with  vessels  of  oil, 
and  aromaticall  liquors  attended  noble  Ossuaries.  And  some  yet  retaining 
a  vinosity  and  spirit  in  them,  which  if  any  have  tasted,  they  have  far  exceeded 
the  palates  of  Antiquity.  Liquors  not  to  be  computed  by  years  of  annual 
magistrates,  but  by  great  conjunctions,  and  the  fatal  periods  of  kingdoms. 
The  draughts  of  consulary  date  wei  e  but  crude  untc>  these,  and  Opimian  wme 
but  in  the  must  unto  them." — Hydriotaphia,  A  treatise  on  Urne  Buriall, 
chap.  iii. 


496 


POMPEII. 


attached  to  houses  within  the  town  cannot  contain  anything 
worth  notice  beyond  a  fountain  or  a  summer  triclinium. 
We  will  do  our  best,  however,  to  complete  the  reader's  notion 
of  an  Italian  villa,  and  shov/  what  might  have  been,  since  we 
cannot  show  what  has  been  here,  by  borrowing  Pliny's 
account  of  the  garden  attached  to  his  Tuscan  villa,  the  only 
account  of  a  Roman  garden  which  has  come  down  to  us. 

"  In  front  of  the  house  lies  a  spacious  hippodrome,*  entirely 
open  in  the  middle,  by  which  means  the  eye,  upon  your  first 
entrance,  takes  in  its  whole  extent  at  one  view.  It  is 
encompassed  on  every  side  with  plane  trees  covered  with  ivy, 
so  that  while  their  heads  flourish  with  their  own  green,  their 
bodies  enjoy  a  borrowed  verdure  ;  and  thus  the  ivy  twining 
round  the  trunk  and  branches,  spreads  from  tree  to  tree  and 
connects  them  together.  Between  each  plane  tree  are  placed 
box  trees,  and  behind  these,  bay  trees,  wUch  blend  their 
shade  with  that  of  the  planes.  This  plantation,  forming  a 
straight  boundary  on  both  sides  of  the  hippodrome,  bends  at 
the  fm^ther  end  into  a  semicircle,  which,  being  set  round  and 
sheltered  with  cypresses,  casts  a  deeper  and  more  gloomy 
shade  ;  while  the  inward  circular  walks  (for  there  are  several) 
enjoying  an  open  exposure,  are  full  of  roses,  and  correct  the 
coolness  of  the  shade  by  the  w^armth  of  the  sun.  Having 
passed  through  these  several  winding  alleys,f  you  enter  a 
straight  walk,  which  breaks  out  into  a  variety  of  others, 
divided  by  box  edges.  In  one  place  you  have  a  little 
meadow ;  in  another,  the  box  is  cut  into  a  thousand  different 
forms,  sometimes  into  letters;  here  expressing  the  name  of 
the  master,  there  that  of  the  artificer  ;  while  here  and  there 
little  obelisks  rise,  intermixed  with  fruit  trees ;  when  on  a 
sudden,  in  the  midst  of  this  elegant  regularity,  you  are 
surprised  with  an  imitation  of  the  negligent  beauties  of  rural 
nature,  in  the  centre  of  which  lies  a  spot  surrounded  with  a 
knot  of  dwarf  plane  trees. J    Beyond  this  is  a  walk,  inter- 

*  Hippodrome  was,  in  its  proper  meaning,  a  place  for  hoi-se-racing :  the 
Greek  name  for  a  circus.  Being  open,  it  may  have  been  used  for  horse,  as 
the  gestatio  was  used  for  carriage  exei-cise ;  but  it  seems  more  probable  that 
here  it  was  merely  a  walk,  so  called  from  its  oblong  form,  rounded  at  the  end. 

t  Here  the  garden  itself  seems  properly  to  begin. 

J  The  plane  tree  was  highly  valued  fur  its  shade,  on  which  account  it  was 
a  favourite  tree  with  boon  companions.  Virgil  speaks  of  it  as  "  ministrantem 
 Dotantibus  umbras." — Georg.  4.    The  Komans,  extravagant  in  all  their 


SUBURBAN  VILLA. 


497 


spersed  witli  the  smooth  and  twining  acanthus,  where  the 
trees  are  also  cut  into  a  variety  of  names  and  shapes.  At  the 
upper  end  is  an  alcove  of  white  marble,  shaded  with  vines, 
supported  by  four  small  columns  of  Carystian  marble.  Here 
is  a  triclinium,  out  of  which  the  water,  gushing  through 
several  little  pipes,  as  if  it  were  pressed  out  by  the  weight  of 
the  persons  who  repose  upon  it,  falls  into  a  stone  cistern 
underneath,  from  whence  it  is  received  into  a  fine  j)olished 
marble  basin,  so  artfully  contrived  that  it  is  always  full 
without  ever  overflowing.  When  I  sup  here,  this  basin  serves 
for  a  table,  the  larger  sort  of  dishes  being  placed  round  the 
margin,  w^hile  the  smaller  swim  about  in  the  form  of  little 
vessels  and  water-fowl.  Corresponding  to  this  is  a  fountain, 
which  is  incessantly  emptying  and  filling;  for  the  water, 
which  it  throws  up  to  a  great  height,  falling  back  again  into 
it,  is  returned  as  fast  as  it  is  received,  by  means  of  two 
openings.  Fronting  the  alcove  stands  a  summer-house  of 
exquisite  marble,  whose  doors  project  and  open  into  a  green 
enclosure,  while  from  its  upper  and  lower  windows  also  the 
eye  is  presented  with  a  variety  of  different  verdures.  Next  to 
this  is  a  little  private  closet,  which,  though  it  seems  distinct, 
may  be  laid  into  the  same  room,  furnished  with,  a  couch  ;  and 
notwithstanding  it  has  window^s  on  every  side,  yet  it  enjoys  a 
very  agreeable  gloominess,  by  means  of  a  spreading  vine, 
which  climbs  to  the  top  and  entirely  overshades  it.  Here 
you  may  lie  and  fancy  yourself  in  a  wood,  with  this  differ- 
ence only,  that  you  are  not  exposed  to  the  weather.  In  this 
place  a  fountain  also  rises,  and  instantly  disappears.  In 
different  quarters  ai^  disposed  several  marble  seats,  which 
serve,  as  well  as  the  summer-house,  as  so  many  reliefs  after 
one  is  tired  of  walking.  Near  each  seat  is  a  little  fountain, 
and  throughout  the  whole  hippodrome  several  small  rills  run 
murmuring  along,  wheresoever  the  hand  of  art  tli ought 
proper  to  conduct  them,  watering  here  and  there  different 
spots  of  verdure,  and  in  their  progress  refreshing  the  whole.'  * 

likings,  used  to  moisten  the  roots  with  wine,  believing  that  it  thrived  best  on 
that  liquor.  There  was  a  famous  one  in  L3'cia,  hollow  with  age,  the  trunk  of 
which  was  eighty-one  Koman  feet  in  circumfeience  within,  which  was  the 
favourite  feasting- place  of  a  Roman  proconsul,  Licinius  ]\Iutianus. — Plin.  xii.  1, 
Xerxes  presented  a  gold  cup  to  a  plane  tree  in  Lydia. — Herod,  vii.  31. 
*  Plin.  Epist.  V.  6  ;  Melmoth's  translation. 

2  K 


498 


P0M1»EII. 


Between  this  villa  and  the  city  there  is  another,  which  was 
excavated  at  different  times  between  1749  and  1778,  and  filled 
up  again  when  the  valuable  things  found  in  it  had  been 
removed,  in  conformity  with  the  general  practice  at  that 
time,  to  prevent  the  proprietors  being  injured  by  the  loss  of 
ground.  Several  admirable  mosaics  and  some  fine  frescoes 
were  found  in  it.  We  find  mentioned  the  celebrated  paintings 
of  the  eight  female  dancers ;  the  four  groups  of  the  Centam^s  ; 
and  the  Funambuli,  or  rope-dancers,  which  decorated  an 
eating-room.  Hence,  too,  were  taken  the  two  mosaics  with 
the  name  of  Dioscorides  of  Samos  inscribed  upon  them,  one 
of  which  has  been  described.  Both  represent  comic  scenes, 
and,  according  to  Winckelmann,  deserve  the  preference  even 
over  the  celebrated  ancient  Eoman  mosaic  of  the  doves,  which 
has  hitherto  been  in  such  high  esteem. 

The  general  arrangement  of  this  villa  resembles  that  which 
we  have  just  described ;  but  it  is  on  a  still  larger  scale,  and 
from  the  richness  ol  the  decorations  evidently  belonged  to 
one  of  the  chief  persons  of  the  place.  It  is  usually  called 
the  Villa  of  Cicero,  who  certainly  possessed  a  house  near 
Pompeii,  of  which  continual  mention  is  made  in  his  letters ; 
but  there  is  no  evidence  whatever  to  identify  this  as  his  abode. 
It  has  also  been  sometimes  called  the  Baths  of  M.  Crassus 
Frugi,  from  an  inscription  found  in  it.  The  front  to  the 
street  is  occupied  by  a  row  of  shops,  vdth.  an  arcade  before 
them.  At  the  end  nearest  the  town  is  a  large  reservoir  of 
rain  water  for  the  use  of  the  house.  Next  to  it  is  the 
entrance,  from  which  a  very  long  pass^^ge  or  vestibule,  with 
numerous  apartments  on  each  side,  supposed  to  have  been 
stables  and  other  offices,  led  into  the  Corinthian  atrium. 
Beyond  and  around  this  were  numerous  rooms  for  the  use  of 
the  family,  galleries  and  terraces  commanding  a  view  of  the 
sea.  At  a  lower  level  is  a  covered  portico,  resembling  in  its 
plan  that  of  the  Suburban  Villa,  and  nearly  of  the  same 
extent.  Above  the  portico  vras  formed  a  terrace,  which  still 
exists,  and  commands  a  fine  view  both  of  the  sea  and  land. 
The  court  within  it  was  a  xystus,  or  garden.  Between  this 
portico  and  the  street  is  another  large  court  of  irregular 
figure,  containing  several  large  basins  built  in  masonry.  The 
information  which  has  been  preserved  concerning  this  house 
is  very  scanty,  in  consequence  of  the  early  period  at  which  it 
was  reinterred. 


499 


CHAPTER  XI. 

TOMBS. 

Before  commencing  our  description  of  the  tombs  which  line 
the  way  as  the  visitor  approaches  from  Naples,  and  seem  to 
prepare  him  tbr  that  funereal  silence  which  reigns  in  the 
long-lost  city,  the  more  remarkable  for  its  contrast  with  the 
gay  and  festive  style  of  decoration  which  still  characterizes 
the  remains  which  surround  him,  it  is  our  intention,  as  we 
have  done  in  other  instances,  to  give  some  general  information 
upon  the  subject  which  we  are  about  to  treat  in  detail,  for 
the  benefit  of  those  among  our  readers  to  whom  the  forms  ot 
Eoman  burial  and  the  expressions  of  Roman  sorrow  are  un- 
familiar. 

Great,  absurdly  great  among  the  uneducated,  as  is  the 
importance  attached  to  a  due  performance  of  the  rites  ot 
burial  in  the  present  day,  it  is  as  nothing  compared  to  the 
interest  which  was  felt  on  this  subject  by  the  Romans ;  and 
not  by  them  only,  but  by  other  nations  of  antiquity,  with 
whose  manners  we  have  nothing  to  do  here.  The  Romans 
indeed  had  a  good  reason  for  this  anxiety,  for  they  believed, 
in  common  with  the  Greeks,  that  if  the  body  remained  unen- 
tombed,  the  soul  wandered  for  a  hundred  years  on  the  hither 
side  of  the  Styx,  alone  and  desponding,  unable  to  gain  ad- 
mission to  its  final  resting-place,  whether  among  the  happy  or 
the  miserable.  If,  therefore,  any  person  perished  at  sea,  or 
otherwise  under  such  circumstances  that  his  body  could  not 
be  found,  a  cenotaph,  or  empty  tomb,  was  erected  by  his 
surviving  friends,  which  served  as  well  for  his  passport  over 
the  Stygian  ferry  as  if  his  body  had  been  burnt  or  committed 
to  the  earth  with  due  ceremonies.  Hence  it  became  a  re- 
ligious duty,  not  rashly  to  be  neglected,  to  scatter  earth  over 
any  unburied  body  which  men  chanced  to  see,  for  even  so 
slight  a  sepulchre  as  this  was  held  sufficient  to  appease  the 
scruples  of  the  infernal  gods.  The  reader,  if  there  be  any 
readers  of  Latin  to  whom  these  superstitions  are  unfamiliar, 
may  refer  to  the  sixth  book  of  the  Mneid,  line  325,  and  to  a 


500 


POMPEII. 


remarkable  ode  of  Horace,  the  28tli  of  the  first  book,  which 
turns  entirely  upon  this  subject.  Burial,  therefore,  was  a 
matter  of  considerable  importance. 

When  death  approached,  the  nearest  relative  hung  over  the 
dying  person,  endeavouring  to  inhale  his  last  breath,  in  a 
fond  belief  that  the  anima,  the  living  principle,  departed  at 
that  moment,  and  by  that  passage  from  the  body.  Hence  the 
phrases,  animam  in  primo  ore  tenere,  spiritimi  excipere,  and  the 
like.  It  is  curious  to  observe  how  an  established  form  of 
expression  holds  its  ground.  Here  are  we,  after  the  lapse  of 
eighteen  hundred  years,  still  talking  of  receiving  a  dying 
friend's  last  breath,  as  if  we  really  meant  what  we  r  ay.  After 
death  the  body  was  washed  and  anointed  by  persons  called 
poUiiictores ;  then  laid  out  on  a  bier,  the  feet  to  the  door,  to 
typify  its  approaching  departure,  dressed  in  the  best  attire 
which  it  had  formerly  owned.  The  bier  was  often  decked 
with  leaves  and  flowers,  a  simple  and  touching  tribute  of 
affection,  which  is  of  the  heart,  and  speaks  to  it,  and  therefore 
has  maintained  its  ground  in  every  age  and  region,  unaffected 
by  the  constant  changes  in  customs  merely  arbitrary  and  con- 
ventional. 

In  ihe  early  ages  of  Kome  the  rites  of  burial  and  burning 

seem  to  have  been  alike  in  us 3.  Afterwards  the  former  seems 
(for  the  matter  is  not  very  clear)  to  have  prevailed,  until 
towards  the  close  of  the  seventh  century  of  the  city,  after  the 
death  of  Sylla,  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  of  the  patri- 
cian Cornelii  who  was  bm^nt.*  Thenceforward  corpses  were 
almost  universally  consumed  by  fire  until  the  establishment 
of  Christianity,  when  the  old  fashion  was  brought  up  again, 
burning  being  violently  opposed  by  the  fathers  of  the  church, 
probably  on  account  of  its  intimate  connection  with  Pagan 
associations  and  superstitions.  Seven  days,  we  are  told, 
elapsed  between  death  and  the  funeral ;  on  the  eighth  the 
corpse  was  committed  to  the  flames ;  on  the  ninth  the  ashes 
were  deposited  in  the  sepulchre.  This  probably  refers  only 
to  the  funerals  of  the  great,  where  much  splendour  and  extent 
of  preparation  was  required,  and  especially  those  public 
funerals  (funera  indidiva)  to  which  the  whole  people  were 
bidden  by  voice  of  crier,  the  ceremony  being  often  closed  by 


*  Cic.  '■  e  g.  ii.  22. 


TOMBS. 


501 


theatrical  and  gladiatorial  exhibitions,  and  a  sumptuous 
banquet.  But  we  have  no  intention  to  narrate  the  pomp 
which  accompanied  the  princely  nobles  of  Eome  to  the 
tomb  :  it  is  enough  for  our  purpose  to  explain  the  usages  of 
pnVate  life,  to  which  the  Street  of  Tombs  owes  its  origin  and 
its  interest. 

In  the  older  times  funerals  were  celebrated  at  night 
because  the  rites  of  religion  were  celebrated  by  day ;  and  it 
was  pollution  for  the  ministers,  or  for  anything  connected 
with  worship  of  the  deities  of  the  upper  world,  even  to  see, 
much  more  to  touch,  anything  connected  with  death.  Fi'om 
this  nightly  solemnization  many  of  the  words  connected  with 
this  subject  are  derived.  Those  who  bore  the  bier  were 
called  originally  Vesperones,  thence  Vesjnllones,  from  Vesjjera. 
evening  ;  and  the  very  term  funus  is  derived  by  grammarians, 
a  funalibus,  from  the  rope  torches  coated  with  wax  or  tallow 
which  continued  to  be  used  long  after  the  necessity  for  using 
them  ceased.*  This  j^ractice,  now  far  more  than  two  thou- 
sand years  old,  is  still  retained  in  the  Eoman  Church, 
with  many  other  ceremonies  borrowed  from  heathen  rites. 
St.  Chrysostom  assures  us  that  if,  Is  not  of  modern  revival, 
and  gives  a  beautiful  reason  for  its  being  retained.  "  Tell 
me,"  he  says,  "what  mean  those  brilliant  lamps  ?  Do  we  not 
go  forth  with  the  dead  on  their  way  rejoicing,  as  with  men 
who  have  fought  their  fight  ?"| 

The  corpse  being  placed  upon  a  litter  (letica)  or  bier 
(^sandapila),  the  former  being  used  by  the  wealthy,  the  latter 
by  the  poor,  was  carried  out  (efferehatur)  preceded  by  instru- 
mental musicians  (siticines),  and  female  singers  (pr(f>Jicce),  who 
chanted  the  dirge  {iieuia).  These  hired  attendants,  whose 
noisy  sorrow  was  as  genuine  as  the  dumb  grief  of  our  mutes, 
were  succeeded,  if  the  deceased  were  noble,  or  distinguished 
by  personal  exploits,  by  numerous  couches  containing  the 
family  effigies  of  his  ancestors,  each  by  itself,  that  the  length 
of  his  lineage  might  be  the  more  conspicuous  ;  by  the  images 
of  such  nations  as  he  had  conquered,  such  cities  as  he  had 
taken  ;  by  the  spoils  which  he  had  won ;  by  the  ensigns  of 

*  Thus  Ta(utLis,  Plena  urbis  itinera,  collucentes  per  campum  Martis  faces. — 
Ann.  iii.  4. 

■f  etTre  /u-Ot — Tt  ^6v\ovTa.(.  at  A.a/X7ra.5e9  at  (fyaiSpaL  ;  ov<  (os  a9kr]Ta<;  avrcvs  (roi/^ 
Tefli/^j/coTtts)  TrpoTre/uTTo/uiei/ ;  Clirvsost.  Hom.  iv.  ad  Herb. 


502 


POMPEII. 


the  magistracies  whicli  lie  had  filled ;  but  if  the  fasces  were 
among  them  these  were  borne  reversed.  Then  came  the 
slaves  whom  he  had  emancipated  (and  often  with  a  view  to 
this  post-mortem  magnificence,  a  master  emancipated  great 
numbers  of  them),  wearing  hats  in  token  of  their  manumis- 
sion. Behind  the  corpse  came  the  nearest  relations,  profuse 
in  the  display  of  grief  as  far  as  it  can  be  shown  by  weeping, 
howling,  beating  the  breasts  and  cheeks,  and  tearing  the  hair, 
which  was  laid,  as  a  last  tribute  of  afiection,  on  the  breast  of 
the  deceased,  to  be  consumed  with  him.*  To  shave  the  head 
was  also  a  sign  of  mourning.  It  is  a  curious  inversion  of  the 
ordinary  customs  of  life,  that  the  sons  of  the  deceased 
mourned  with  the  head  covered,  the  daughters  with  it  bare. 

With  this  attendance  the  body  was  borne  to  the  place  of 
burial,  being  usually  carried  through  the  Forum,  where,  if 
the  deceased  had  been  a  person  of  any  eminence,  a  funeral 
oration  was  spoken  from  the  rostra  in  his  honour.  The  place 
of  burial  was  without  the  city,  in  almost  every  instance. 
By  the  twelve  tables  it  was  enacted  that  no  one  should  be 
burnt  or  buried  within  the  city  ;  and  as  this  wholesome  law 
fell  into  disuse,  it  was  from  time  to  time  revived  and  enforced. 
The  reasons  for  its  establishment  were  twofold,  religious 
and  civil.  To  the  former  head  belongs  the  reason,  already 
assigned  for  a  difierent  observance,  that  the  very  sight  of 
things  connected  with  death  brought  pollution  on  things  con- 
secrated to  the  gods  of  the  upper  world.  So  far  was  this 
carried  that  the  priest  of  Jupiter  (Flamen  Dialis)  might  not 
even  enter  any  place  where  there  was  a  tomb,  or  so  much  as 
hear  the  funeral  pipes :  nay,  his  wife,  the  Flaminica,  might 
not  wear  shoes  made  of  the  hide  of  an  ox  which  had  died  a 
natural  death,  because  all  things  which  had  died  spontaneously 
were  of  ill  omen.f  Besides,  it  was  an  ill  omen  to  any  one 
to  come  upon  a  tomb  unawares.  Another  reason  was  that 
the  public  convenience  might  not  be  interrupted  by  private 

*  Thus  Ovid,  speaking  of  Phaeton — 

 Pianxere  sorores 

Naiades,  et  sectos  fratri  imposuere  capillos. — Met.  iii 
Seneca  also  alludes  to  the  custom : — 

Placemus  umbras ;  capitis  exuvia  cape, 

Laceraeq :  t'rontis  accipe  abscissam  comam. 

Phaedra.  Act.  i.  sc.  1. 
t  Quoniam  sua  morte  extincta  omnia  funesta  sunt. — Fest. 


TOMBS. 


503 


rites,  since  no  tombs  could  be  removed  without  sacrilege 
when  once  established,  unless  by  the  state,  upon  sufficient 
cause.*  The  civil  reasons  are  to  be  sought  in  the  unwhole- 
some exhalations  of  large  burying-grounds,  and  the  danger  of 
fire  from  burning  funeral  piles  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
houses.  It  is  not  meant,  however,  that  there  were  no  tombs 
within  the  city.  Some  appear  to  have  been  included  by  the 
gradual  extension  of  the  walls  ;  others  were  established  in 
those  intervals  when  the  law  of  the  twelve  tables  fell,  as  we 
have  said,  into  desuetude  ;  nor  does  it  appear  that  these  were 
destroyed,  nor  their  contents  removed.  Thus  both  the 
Claudian  and  the  Cincian  clans  had  sepulchres  in  Rome,  the 
former  under  the  CapitoLj 

If  the  family  were  of  sufficient  consequence  to  have  a  pa- 
trimonial tomb  the  deceased  was  laid  in  it :  if  he  had  none 
such,  and  was  wealthy,  he  usually  constructed  a  tomb  upon 
his  property  during  life,  or  bought  a  piece  of  ground  for  the 
purpose.  If  possible  the  tomb  was  always  placed  near  a 
road.  Hence  the  usual  form  of  inscription,  Siste,  Viator 
(Stay,  Traveller),  continually  used  in  churches  by  those 
small  wits  who  thought  that  nothing  could  be  good  English 
which  was  not  half  Latin,  and  forgot  that  in  our  country  the 
traveller  must  have  stayed  already  to  visit  the  sexton,  before 
he  can  possibly  do  so  in  compliance  with  the  advice  of  the 
monument.  For  the  poor  there  were  public  burial-grounds, 
called  puticuU,  a  jmteis,  from  the  trenches  ready  dug  to  re- 
ceive bodies.  Such  was  the  ground  at  the  Esquiline  g«ate, 
which  Augustus  gave  Maecenas  for  his  gardens.  J  Public 

*  That  it  might  he  done  under  the  sanction  ot'  the  religious  authorities,  we 
learn  from  Cicero :  "  Statuit  collegium  locum  publicum  non  potuisse  privata 
religione  obligari." — Legg.  ii.  23. 

f  Suet.  Tiber.  There  were  tombs  belonging  to  the  clans  (gentes),  in  which 
none  but  those  of  the  clan,  and  therefore  })aiticipating  in  the  same  sacred  rites, 
could  be  buried.  Tanta  religio  est  sepulciorum,  ut  extra  sacra  ^t  gentem 
inferri  fas  negent  esse. — Cic.  Legg.  ii.  22.  [But  a  tomb  might  be  under  the 
Capitol  and  yet  without  the  old  Servian  walls,  as,  for  instance,  the  tomb  of 
Bibulus,  which  may  still  be  seen.  The  privilege  of  being  buried  within  the 
walls  belonged,  by  virtue  of  their  office,  to  the  Vestals,  and  was  sometimes 
extended  to  distinguished  poisons. — Ed.] 

J  Nunc  licet  Esquiliis  habitare  salubribus,  atque 
Aggere  in  aprico  spatiari  ;  quo  modo  tristes 
Albis  informem  spectabant  ossibus  humum. 

Hor.  Sat,  i,  viii.  14. 


504 


POMPEII. 


tombs  were  also  granted  by  the  state  to  eminent  men  ;  an 
honour  in  early  times  conferred  on  few.*  These  grants  were 
usually  made  in  the  Campus  Martins,  where  no  one  could 
legally  be  buried  without  a  decree  of  the  senate  in  his  favour. 
It  appears  from  the  inscriptions  found  in  the  Street  of  Tombs 
at  Pompeii,  that  much,  if  not  the  whole  of  the  ground  on 
which  those  tombs  are  built,  was  public  property,  the  property 
of  the  corporation,  as  we  should  now  say ;  and  that  the  sites 
of  many,  perhaps  of  all,  were  either  purchased,  or  granted  by 
the  decurions,  or  municipal  senate,  in  gratitude  for  obliga- 
tions received. 

Sometimes  the  body  was  burnt  at  the  place  where  it  was 
to  be  entombed,  which,  when  the  pile  and  sepulchre  were 
thus  joined,  was  called  hustum ;  f  sometimes  the  sepulchre 
was  at  a  distance  from  the  place  of  burning,  which  was  then 
called  ustrina.^  The  words  hustum  and  sepulclirum,  therefore, 
though  often  loosely  used  as  synonymous,  are  not  in  fact  so, 
the  latter  being  involved  in,  but  by  no  means  comprehending 
the  former.  The  pile  was  ordered  to  be  built  of  rough  wood, 
unpolished  by  the  axe.  Pitch  was  added  to  quicken  the 
flames,  and  cypress,  the  aromatic  sc^nt  of  which  was  useful 
to  overpower  the  stench  of  the  burning  body.  The  funeral 
piles  of  great  men  were  of  immense  size,  and  splendidly 
adorned  ;  and  all  classes  appear  to  have  indulged  their  vanity 
in  this  respect  to  the  utmost  of  their  means,  so  that  a  small 
and  unattended  pyre  is  mentioned  as  the  mark  of  an  insignifi- 
cafit  or  friendless  person.  The  body  was  placed  (m  it  in  the 
litter  or  bier ;  the  nearest  relation  present  then  opened  the 
eyes,  which  it  had  been  the  duty  of  the  same  person  to  close 
immediately  after  death,  and  set  fire  to  the  wood  with  averted 
face,  in  testimony  that  he  performed  that  office  not  of  good- 
will, but  of  necessity.  As  the  combustion  proceeded,  various 
offerings  were  cast  into  the  flames.  The  manes  were  believed 
to  love-  blood  :  animals,  therefore,  especially  those  which 
they  had  loved  while  alive,  were  killed  and  thrown  upon  the 
pile,  as  horses,  dogs,  and  doves,  besides  the  beasts  commonly 

*  Majores  nostri  statuas  miiltis  decreverunt,  sepulcra  paucis. — Cic.  Pliilipp. 

ix. 

f  We  may  trace  the  signification  of  hustum  in  its  dei  ivation  from  buro,  the 
ori2;inal  form  of  the  verb  uro,  to  burn,  as  in  comhuro. 
X  Festus. 


TOMBS. 


505 


used  in  sacrifice,  as  sheep  and  oxen.  Human  beings,  especially 
prisoners  of  war,  were  sometimes  put  to  death,  though  not  in 
the  later  times  of  the  republic.  The  most  costly  robes  and 
arms  of  the  deceased,  especially  trophies  taken  in  warfare, 
were  also  devoted  in  his  honour,  and  the  blaze  was  fed  by  the 
costly  oils  and  gums  of  the  East.  The  body  beiug  reduced  to 
ashes,  these  were  then  quenched  with  wine,  and  collected  by 
the  nearest  relation  ;  after  which,  if  the  grief  were  real,  they 
were  again  bedewed  with  tears ;  if  not,  wine  or  unguents 
answered  the  purpose  equally  well.  The  whole  ceremony  is 
described  in  few  lines  by  Tibullus  : — 

There,  while  the  fire  lies  smouMering  on  the  ground, 

My  bones,  the  all  of  me,  can  then  be  found. 

Arrayed  in  mourning  lobes,  the  sorrowing  pair 

Shall  gather  all  around  with  pious  care ; 

With  ruddy  wine  the  relics  sprinkle  o'er, 

And  snowy  milk  on  them  collected  pour. 

Then  with  fair  linen  cloths  the  moisture  dry, 

Inurned  in  some  cold  marble  tomb  to  lie. 

With  them  enclose  the  spices,  sweets,  and  gums, 

And  all  that  from  the  rich  Arabia  comes, 

And  what  Assyria's  wealthy  confines  send. 

And  tears,  sad  offering,  to  my  memory  lend. — Eleg.  iii.  2-17. 

The  ashes  thus  collected  were  then  finally  deposited  in  the 
urn,  which  was  made  of  different  materials,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  dead ;  usually  of  clay  or  glass,  but  sometimes 
of  marble,  bronze,  and  even  the  precious  metals.  The  cere- 
mony thus  over,  the  pra3fica  gave  the  word,  llicet  (the  con- 
tracted form  of  Ire  licet,  It  is  lawful  to  go),  and  the  bystanders 
departed,  having  been  thrice  sprinkled  with  a  branch  of  olive 
or  laurel  dipped  in  water,  to  purify  them  from  the  2)ollution 
which  they  had  contracted,  and  repeating  thrice  the  words. 
Vale,  or  Salve,  words  of  frequent  occurrence  in  monumental 
inscriptions,  as  in  one  of  beautiful  simplicity  which  we  quote 
below.'* 

Before  the  urn  was  committed  to  the  tomb  the  interval  of 
a  day  frequently  elapsed  ;  and  often,  after  the  funeral,  a  feast 

*  VALE  .  ET  .  SALVE  .  ANIMA  .  C.  OPPLE  .  FELICL^S.  NOS  .  EO  . 
OUDINE  .  QUO  .  NATURA  .  PERxMISERlT  .  TE  .  SEQUEMUR  .  VALE  . 
>L\TER  .  DULCISSIMA.  Farewell,  most  happy  soul  of  Caia  Oppia.  We 
shall  follow  thee  in  such  order  as  may  be  appointed  by  nature,  iarewell, 
sweetest  mother.'* 


506 


POMPEII. 


was  held  in  honour  of  the  dead,  at  which  his  urn  was  placed 
in  a  conspicuous  situation.  This  portion  of  the  subject  wc 
reserve  for  future  discussion.  Tombs  were  of  two  sorts : 
those  which  w^ere  erected  for  the  reception  of  a  single  person, 
or  of  such  persons  as  the  builder  chose  to  admit  to  a  partici- 
pation of  it,  in  which  case  a  curse  was  usually  denounced  on 
all  who  violated  it  by  introducing  the  bones  of  others ;  and 
those  again  which  were  built  as  family  monuments,  where 
the  freed  slaves  of  the  family,  who  could  of  course  have  no 
sepulchres  of  their  ow^n  except  by  purchase,  were  frequently 
admitted.  An  instance  of  this  sort  occurs  in  the  Street  of 
Tombs,  in  the  tomb  erected  by  Naevoleia  Tyche.  Each  tomb 
was  usually  encircled  by  a  low  wall  or  palisade  ;  and  as  not 
only  the  building  itself,  but  the  plot  of  ground  on  which  it 
stood,  was  consecrated,  it  was  usual  to  place  an  inscription, 
stating  how  much  ground  was  allotted,  and  consequently  how 
far  the  sacred  part  extended.  "  In  fronte  pedes  tot  .  in  agro 
pedes  tot." 

The  distinction  between  cenotaphs  and  tombs  has  been 
already  explained.  Cenotaphs,  however,  were  of  two  sorts  : 
those  erected  to  persons  already  duly  buried,  which  were 
merely  honorary,  and  those  erected  to  the  unburied  dead, 
which  had  a  religious  end  and  efficacy.  This  evasion  of  the 
penal  laws  against  lying  unburied  was  chiefly  serviceable  to 
persons  shipwrecked  or  slain  in  war  ;  but  all  came  in  for  the 
benefit  of  it  whose  bodies  could  not  be  found  or  identified. 
"When  a  cenotaph  of  the  latter  class  was  erected  sacrifices 
were  offered,  the  manes  of  the  deceased  were  thrice  invoked 
with  a  loud  voice,  as  if  to  summon  them  to  their  new  abode, 
which  part  of  the  ceremony  was  called  i/zi^xaywyta,  and  the 
cenotaph  was  hallowed  with  the  same  privileges  as  if  the  ashes 
of  the  deceased  reposed  within  it.* 

The  heir,  however,  had  not  discharged  his  last  duty  when 
he  had  laid  the  body  of  his  predecessor  in  the  tomb :  there 
were  still  due  solemn  rites,  and  those  of  an  expensive  cha- 
racter. The  Romans  loved  to  keep  alive  the  memory  of  their 
dead,  showing  therein  a  constancy  of  affection  which  does 

*  Statuent  tumulum.  et  tumulo  solemnia  mittent 

-£ternumq.  locus  Palinuri  nomea  habebit. — JEn.  vi.  380. 
....  Tumulum  Rhfeteo  in  litore  inanem 
Constitui,  ot  magna  manes  ter  voce  vocavi. — lb.  505. 


TOMBS. 


507 


them  honour  ;  and  not  only  immediately  after  the  funeral, 
but  at  stated  periods  from  time  to  time,  they  celebrated  feasts 
and  offered  sacrifices  and  libations  to  them.  The  month  of 
February  was  especially  -set  apart  for  doing  honour  to  the 
manes,  having  obtained  that  distinction  in  virtue  of  being,  in 
old  times,  the  last  month  of  the  year.  Private  funeral 
feasts  were  also  celebrated  on  the  ninth  day  after  death 
(^novemdialia),  and  indeed  at  any  time,  except  on  those  days 
which  were  marked  as  unlucky  (atri),  because  some  great 
public  calamity  had  befallen  upon  them.  Besides  these  feasts, 
the  dead  were  honoured  with  (inferice)  sacrifices,  which  were 
offered  (inferehantur)  to  the  manes,  and  with  games ;  but  the 
latter  belong  more  to  those  splendid  public  funerals  which  we 
have  professed  not  to  describe.  The  inferiae  consisted  princi- 
pally of  libations,  for  which  were  used  water,  milk,  wine,  but 
especially  blood,  the  smell  of  which  was  thought  peculiarly 
palatable  to  the  ghosts.  Perfumes  and  flowers  were  also 
thrown  upon  the  tomb  ;  and  the  inexpediency  of  w^asting  rich 
wines  and  precious  oils*  on  a  cold  stone  and  dead  body, 
when  they  might  be  employed  in  comforting  the  living, 
was  a  favourite  subject  with  the  hons  vivans  of  the  age.  It 
was  with  the  same  design  to  crown  it  with  garlands,  and  to 
honour  it  with  libations,  that  Electra  and  Orestes  met  and 
recognized  each  other  at  their  father's  tomb.  Eoses  were  in 
especial  request  for  this  service,  and  lilies  also  : — 

Full  canisters  of  fVagi  ant  lilies  bring. 
Mixed  with  the  purple  I'oses  of  the  spring; 
Let  me  with  funeral  floweis  his  body  strow, 
This  gift  which  parents  to  their  children  owe, 
This  unavailing  gift  at  least  1  may  bestow. 

Dryden,  JEn.  vi.  883. 

Other  plants  however  were  set  apart  as  having  a  special 
fitness  for  this  purpose.  The  Greeks  used  amaranthus,  which, 
without  much  violence,  may  be  translated,  everlasting  ;  and, 
in  truth,  is  commonly  understood  to  mean  the  flower  so 
named.    Parsley  and  myrtle  were  also  funereal  plants  ;  still 

*  Thus  Anacreon — 

Ti  6e  Se  t  \l9ov  fxvpi^eiv  ; 
Tt  6e  yrj  X^eiv  fxaraia  ; 
'E/iAt  juaAAov,  (o9  ert  ^co 
MuptVoj/,  p66ot5  5e  Kpara. 
Uvicda-ou  


508 


POMPEII. 


tlie  rose  was  in  early  ages  the  favourite  for  tliis  last,  as  for  all 
other  uses.*  The  Eomans  were  so  fond  of  it,  that  we  find  in- 
scriptions making  mention  of  legacies,  bestowed  on  condition 
that  the  monument  of  the  testator  should  be  annually  crowned 
with  roses.  They  also  made  much  use  of  woollen  fillets 
(^infulce,  tcenice),  one  remarkable  application  of  which  will  be 
noticed  in  the  course  of  this  chapter. 

In  the  earliest  ages  of  Christianity  these  practices  were 
strenuously  denounced  as  savouring  of  idolatry.  The  objec- 
tionable parts,  the  sacrifices  and  libations,  once  abandoned, 
were  of  course  never  resumed  ;  but  it  is  curious  to  see  how 
soon  the  hearts  of  men  wandered  back  to  a  simple,  natural, 
and  elegant  method  of  testifying  affection.  Even  so  soon  as 
the  fourth  century,  St.  Jerome  and  Prudentius  had  so  far  con- 
quered their  fears  of  Paganism,  that  they  speak  of  the  custom 
of  strewing  tombs  with  flowers,  and  sjDeak  of  it  with  compla- 
cency. 

The  first  tomb  on  the  left,  marked  1  on  the  following  plan, 
which  presents  itself  to  the  traveller  as  .he  approaches  the 
Gate  of  Herculaneum,  bears  the  name  of  Diomedes,  and  stands 
just  opposite  the  Suburban  Villa,  to  which  it  has  lent  a  name. 
To  modern  notions  there  is  something  discordant  in  thus 
intermingling  life  and  death,  and  even  those  who  have  least 
cause  to  fear  the  final  hour,  and  who  look  with  the  warmest 
interest  upon  the  spot  where  those  loved  ones  who  have  gone 
before  them  are  deposited,  would  shrink  from  the  close 
association  of  such  objects  with  their  every-day  business  and 
pleasures.  One  remarkable  instance  of  a  contrary  feeling  in 
a  remarkable  man  is  well  known  ;  it  is  that  of  Nelson,  who 
kept  the  cof&n  made,  after  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  out  of  the 
mainmast  of  L'Orient,  in  his  cabin,  in  full  sight :  but  the 
display  was  not  so  agreeable  to  his  friends,  who  never  rested 
till  they  got  it  stowed  away  in  the  hold.  In  this  aversion 
the  Eomans  had  no  share.  Death  was  to  them  the  end  of 
sensation  and  pleasure,  yet,  instead  of  regarding  the  emblems 
(jf  it  with  aversion,  they  rather  sought  in  them  a  higher 
;eli>h  for  present  enjoyment.     That  singular  custom,  bor- 

So  Anacieon  — 

'Et?  poSov' 

ToSe-  Koi  vocrovcTLV  ap/cet 
To6e  /cat  v^Kpoi^  a/xOret. 


TOMBS. 


509 


rowed  from  the  Egyptians,  is  well  known,  by  which  a 
skeleton  was  not  unfrequently  introduced  among  the  guests 
at  festive  parties,  with  the  exhortation,  pointed  by  appealing 
to  the  sapless  bones,  "  Let  us  live  while  the  power  of  enjoy- 
ment is  ours."  ^ 

This  tomb,  as  well  as  almost  all  which  which  have  been 
found,  is  raised  upon  a  platform  of  masonry  above  the  level 
of  the  footway.  To  the  extreme  left  is  a  wall,  which  seems 
to  mark  the  limits  of  the  family  burial-place.    Near  it  stand 


i  uncial  Culuuill. 

two  cipj)i,  or  funeral  columns,  one  erected  to  Arria,  a  daughter 
probably,  the  other  to  Arrius,  his  eldest  son.  These  are  sur- 
mounted by  hemispheres,  the  flat  side  presented  to  the  road 
— a  form  of  monument  not  uncommon  at  Pompeii ;  and  one 
which,  when  the  hinder  part  is  carved  in  imitation  of  hair, 
with  dependent  tresses,  it  is  difficult  to  see  without  thinking 
of  that  antidote  to  sentiment,  a  barber's  block.  A  low  wall 
divides  these  monuments  from  the  principal  one ;  but  that 
they  all  belong  to  one  family  is  made  evident  by  an  inscrip- 
tion placed  directly  under  this  partition  : — 
AUPJAE  .  M  .  F  .  (ili«) 
DI0M1':DES  .  L  .  SIBI  .  SVIS  . 


*  Vivamus,  dum  licet  esse  bene.  The  Egyptians  introduced  a  wooden 
fitjure  of  a  mummy,  and  their  formuhx  ran  differently,  according  to  Herodotus. 

'Es  TOVTOi^  opduiv  TTLve  T€  KOL  TcpTreo,  ecTCTeaL  yap  aitoOaviov  rotouTOs.  ii.  78.  *'  Re- 
garding tnis,  drink  and  enjoy  thyself,  lor  such  a.v  tliis  wilt  thou  be  after 
death." 


510 


POMPEII. 


Grouud-plun  of  tae  Street  of  Tumbs 


TOMBS. 


511 


Gate  of  Herculaneum. 


Ground-plan  of  the  Street  of  Tombs. 


512 


POMPEn. 


The  tomb  itself  is  a  solid  building,  not  fitted  for  the  recep- 
tion of  urns,  and  therefore  merely  erected  in  commemoration, 
like  the  cippi  above  described.  The  facade  is  about  nine  feet 
broad  and  twelve  high,  and  presents  two  pilasters,  which 
support  a  pediment.  The  capitals  are  capricious,  but  not 
inelegant.  Under  the  pediment  is  the  following  inscrip- 
tion :  — 

M.  ARRIVS  .  :  .  L  .  DIOMEDES 
SIBI  .  Svis  MEMORIAE 
MAGISTER  .  PAG  •  AUG  •  FELIC  •  SVBVRB. 

The  letter  preceding  the  L  is  much  defaced,  and  its  signifi- 
cation not  determined  ;  it  seems  to  have  been  the  initial  of  a 
name.    The  inscription  will  signify  that  "  Marcus  Arrius 

Diomedes,  freedman  of  ,  president  of  the  suburb  of 

Augusta  Felix,  erected  this  building  as  a  memorial  of  himself 
and  his  family."  Of  this  suburb  the  Street  of  Tombs  is 
supposed  to  have  formed  part.  Below  are  fasces,  the  emblems 
of  authority,  which  show  that  he  was  one  of  the  chief  munici- 
pal magistrates,  but  reversed,  in  conformity  with  the  custom 
in  cases  of  mourning,  which  we  have  already  noticed.  The 
buildmg  is  of  rough  stone,  covered  with  stucco.  Beside  it  is 
a  small  building,  2,  with  a  semicircular  recess,  apparently 
containing  a  seat. 

On  the  same  platform  are  two  other  tombs :  the  one,  3,  strik- 
ing only  from  its  diminutive  size  and  plainness,  is  evidently 
the  humble  tribute  of  some  poor  family  to  a  departed  member  ; 
the  other,  4,  is  of  considerable  size  and  pretensions.  It 
formed  an  oblong  building,  the  sides  ornamented  with  pilas- 
ters, which  sup23orted  an  entablature  crowned  by  statues. 
The  upper  part  of  the  tomb  is  now  destroyed,  but  the  frag- 
ments of  the  entablature  and  statues  found  about  it  testify 
plainly  that  such  must  have  been  the  design.  The  side  next 
the  city  is  ornamented  by  two  bas-reliefs,  much  broken,  and 
the  front  has  the  remains  of  two  medallions,  which  probably 
contained  portraits  of  Lucius  Ceius  and  Lucius  Labeo,  to 
whom  the  tomb  was  erected  by  their  freedman,  Menomachus, 

The  next  tomb,  marked  5  on  the  plan,  is  solid,  and  com- 
posed entirely  of  blocks  of  travertine  ;  and  in  consequence  it 
remains  perfect,  while  the  sm-rounding  buildings,  run  up 
with  small  stones  and  stucco,  are  all  of  them  more  or  less 


TOMBS. 


513 


degraded.  The  form  is  simple  and  elegant,  resembling  the 
pedestal  of  a  column ;  the  base  about  twelve  feet  square,  the 
height  sixteen  feet.  It  is  decorated  Avith  a  well-designed 
moulding  and  cornice,  beneath  which,  both  on  the  southern 
and  western  sides,  is  the  inscription  : — 

M  .  ALLEIO  .  LVCCIO  •  LIBELLAE  .  PATRl  •  AEDILI 
II  .  VIR  .  PRAEFECTO  •  QVINQ  .  ET  •  M  .  ALLEIO  •  LIBELLAE  •  F. 
DECVRIONI  .  VIXIT  .  ANOTS  .  XVII  .  LOCVS  •  MONVMENTI 
PVBLICE  .  DATVS  •  EST  •  ALLEIA  •  M  •  F  •  DECIMILLA  •  SACERDOS 
PVBLICA  .  CERERIS  •  FACIENDVM  •  CVRAVIT  •  VIRO  •  ET  •  FILIO 

"  ToM.  Alleius  Luccius  Libella,  the  father,  ^dile,  Duumvir, 
Quinquennial  Prefect,  and  M.  AUeius  Libella,  his  son,  Decu- 
rion,  who  lived  to  the  age  of  seventeen,  was  assigned  the  site 
of  this  monument  at  the  public  charge.  AUeia  Decimilla, 
daughter  of  Marcus,  Public  Priestess  of  Ceres,  erected  it  to 
her  husband  and  son.'' 

The  offices  of  Duum.vir  and  Decurion  corresponded  in  the 
municipal  towns  with  those  of  Consul  and  Senator  at  Rome, 
as  we  have  before  had  occasion  to  mention.  It  is  remarkable 
that  the  rank  of  Decurion,  which,  according  to  a  passage  in 
Macrobius  (Sat  ii.  3),  was  very  difficult  to  be  obtained  at 
Pompeii,  should  have  been  enjoyed  by  a  youth  of  seventeen. 
The  same  passage  shows  that  the  rank  of  Decurio  answered 
to  that  of  Senator.* 

Behind  this  tomb  the  reader  will  observe  a  small  sepul- 
chral enclosure,  and  the  commencement  of  another  building, 
marked  6  and  7  on  the  plan.  Neither  presents  anything 
worthy  of  notice. 

The  next,  marked  8,  placed  at  the  junction  of  two  roads, 
and  called  the  Tomb  with  the  Marble  Door,  has  nothing 
remarkable  in  its  exterior.  It  is  composed  of  small  pieces 
of  tufa,  laid  sometimes  horizontally,  sometimes  in  diamonds,! 
the  top  much  broken.  In  front  is  a  low  entrance,  about 
four  feet  high,  which  was  closed  by  a  marble  door,  turning 
upon  bronze  pivots  received  in  sockets  of  the  same  metal. 
It  was  drawn  to  by  a  ring  and  closed  by  a  lock,  probably 
of  the  same  metal :  the  holes  cut  to  receive  them  are  still 

*  Cicero  facilitatem  Csesaris  in  allpgendo  Senatu  irrisit  palam ;  nam  cnni 
ab  hospite  suo  P.  JNIallio  rogaretur  ut  decurionatum  privigno  ojus  oxpediiet, 
as>i>tente  frequeutia  dixit  ;  Rom?e  si  vis  habebit,  Pompeiis  difficile  est. 

t  Opus  reticulatum. 

2  L 


514  POMPEII. 

to  be  seen.  In  tlie  intorior  is  a  small  chamber,  lighted  by  a 
high  window  in  the  back  of  the  tomb.  Beneath  the  window, 
opposite  the  door,  is  a  niche,  in  which  an  alabaster  vase  was 
found.  Other  vases,  in  glass,  earth,  and  marble,  were  standing 
upon  a  ledge  which  runs  around  the  chamber.    The  reader 


will  observe  the  columharia,  or  little  niches,  so  called  from 
their  resemblance  to  the  holes  of  a  pigeon-house,  in  which 
the  urns  are  severally  deposited. 

Beyond  this  tomb,  where  the  two  roads  separate,  are  the 
remains  of  a  small  square  enclosure,  9,  probably  an  ustrinum, 
or  place  for  burning  dead  bodies.    Its  isolated  situation 


TOMBS.  515 

appears  to  render  it  peculiarly  suited  to  this  purpose.  It  is 
not  uncommon  to  find  inscriptions  on  monuments  forbidding 
the  application  of  funeral  piles  against  them :  "  Ad  hoc  mo- 
numentum  ustrinum  applicare  non  licet.*' 


^Ye  will  now  cross  to  the  other  side  of  the  road,  where  tlio 
monuments  are  in  better  preservation  and  more  interesting. 
Ckse  to  the  Villa  of  Diomedes  is  a  small  enclosure,  of  ir- 
regular figure,  presenting  to  the  street  a  plain  front  about 
twenty  feet  in  length,  stuccoed  and  unornamented,  except  by 
a  low  pediment  and  cornice.  The  door  is  remarkably  low, 
not  more  than  five  feet  high.  Entering,  we  find  ourselves 
within  a  chamber  open  to  the  sky,  the  w\alls  cheerfully  de- 


516 


POMPEII. 


corated  with  23aintings  of  animals  in  the  centre  of  compart- 
ments bordered  with  flowers. Before  us  is  a  stone  triclinium, 
with  a  massive  pedestal  in  the  centre  to  receive  the  table, 
and  a  round  pillar  in  advance  of  it.  It  is  a  funeral  triclinium, 
for  the  celebration  of  feasts  in  honour  of  the  dead :  the  pillar 
probably  supported  the  urn  of  him  in  whose  honour  the  en- 
tertainments were  given,  after  which  it  was  deposited  in  the 
tomb.  Some  notice  of  these  funeral  feasts  will  complete  our 
account  of  the  honours  paid  to  the  dead. 

Although  a  usual  tribute  of  respect,  they  were  not  a  neces- 
sary part  of  the  funeral  ceremonies,  insomuch  that  a  disap- 
pointed heir  often  revenged  himself  by  defrauding  the  de- 
ceased of  this  portion  of  his  honours. "j*  The  name  given  to 
them  was  siJicernium,  of  which,  according  to  a  voluminous 
antiquary,  there  are  as  many  etymologies  as  there  are  syl- 
lables. The  antiquity  of  this  practice  appears  from  Homer  ;  i: 
and  it  still  existed  in  the  fourth  century,  in  the  time  of 
St.  Augustine,  who  expressed  wonder  that  men  should  heap 
meats  and  wines  upon  tombs,  as  if  departed  sj^irits  required 
fleshly  food.''§  Finally,  those  meats  were  burnt,  lest  they 
should  be  profaned  by  any  person  partaking  of  them,  and  the 
term  hustirajms,  tomb-snatcher,  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  to 
denote  the  extreme  of  misery  and  degradation,  which  alone, 
it  was  supposed,  could  drive  men  to  plimder  these  devoted 
banquets.  Another  class  of  funeral  feasts  was  of  a  more 
cheerful  description,  and  consisted  of  an  entertainment,  not 
only  to  be  partaken,  but  to  be  consumed  by  the  dearest  friends 

*  These  have  now  vanished,  and  the  whole  place  is  in  a  very  dilapidated 
condition. 

■f  Sed  coenam  funeris  haeres 

Negliget  iratus,  si  rem  cuilaveris. — Pers.  iv.  53. 

J  Eurylochus 

Held  fast  the  destined  sacrifice,  while  I 
Scooped  with  my  sword  the  soil,  opening  a  trench 
Ell-wide  on  every  side  :  then  poured  around 
Lihation  consecrate  to  all  the  dead, 
First  milk  with  honey  mixed,  then  luscious  wine, 
Then  water,  sprinkling  last  meal  over  all. 
***** 

Piercing  the  victims  next,  I  turned  them  both 
To  bleed  into  the  trench  :  then  swarming  came 
From  Erebus  the  shades  of  the  deceased. 

Cowper,  Odyss.  xi.  23,  scq. 

§  De  Sanctis,  Serm.  15. 


TOMBS. 


517 


and  relations  of  tlie  deceased.  Sometimes  it  was  given  at 
the  time  of  the  funeral,  in  which  case  the  urn  of  the  deceased 
appears  to  have  been  exposed  to  view,  sometimes  at  the  puri- 
ficatory sacrifice  (novemdiale)  at  the  end  of  nine  days,  some- 
times at  later  periods  of  annual  recurrence.  Legacies  were 
sometimes  left  to  defray  the  expense  of  an  annual  feast. 
Mention  is  made  of  Minutius  Anteras,  a  freedman,  who  left 
an  annual  sum  of  10,000  sesterces,  about  80/.,  to  be  spent  in 
his  honour.  Public  feasts  were  sometimes  given  by  very 
wealthy  men  in  honour  of  their  relations,  as  did  the  son  of 
Sylla  in  honour  of  his  father,  and  Julius  Caesar  in  honour  of 
his  daughter.  At  these  the  whole  people  w^ere  entertained 
at  an  enormous  expense.  Certain  dishes  were  peculiarly  ap- 
propriate to  the  funeral  meal,  among  which  were  beans, 
parsley,  eggs,  lentils,  and  a  cake  called  libum,  not,  however, 
to  the  exclusion  of  meat.  Even  on  these  mournful  occasions 
the  guests  came  dressed  in  white  ;  to  appear  in  black  seems  to 
have  been  a  sort  of  profanation.  There  is  a  remarkable  charge 
in  the  Oration  against  Vatinius,  that  at  a  public  funeral  en- 
tertainment, given  by  Q.  Arrius,  he  had  appeared  among  the 
senators  assembled  in  the  temj^le  of  Castor  in  a  black  robe. 
"  Who  ever,  at  a  private  funeral,  appeared  at  table  in  a 
mourning  gown?  who  but  yourself  ever  took  a  mourning 
gown  on  leaving  the  bath  ?  When  so  many  thousands  were 
set  down,  when  the  master  of  the  feast,  Q.  Arrius,  was  in  white, 
you  burst  like  an  omen  of  evil  into  the  temple  of  Castor, 
with  Caius  Fidulus,  in  black,  and  the  rest  of  your  furies."* 

Bonucci  calls  this  triclinium  the  sepulchral  chamber  of 
Saturninus.  We  have  not  access  to  his  work,  and  cannot 
tell  what  is  his  authority  for  the  assertion.  Mazois  gives  no 
inscription.!  It  is  the  only  erection  of  its  kind  in  the  Street 
of  Tombs,  and  we  should  almost  consider  it  as  built  for  the 
general  accommodation,  or  perhaps  as  matter  of  speculation, 
and  let  out  on  hi  re.  J 

The  monument  which  stands  next  is  intended  for  the 

*  Cic.  in  Vatin.  13.  The  allusion  to  the  bath  is  another  proof  how  invariably 
the  Romans  resorted  to  it  before  the  afternoon  nieal. 

f  An  inscription  built  into  the  gable  says  that  it  was  erected  in  honour  ot 
Cn.  Vibrius  Satuininus,  of  the  Falernian  Tribe,  by  liis  freeman  Callifctus. 
See  Mommsen,  Inscrr.  liegni  Neap.  No.  2349. — Ed. 

J  For  the  elevation  of  this  and  following  tombs,  see  above,  p.  429. 


518 


POIlPEII. 


common  burial-place  of  a  family.  It  consists,  as  will  be  seen 
more  clearly  by  looking  to  the  ground  plan,  No.  11,  of  a 
square  building,  containing  a  small  chamber.  Iby  the  side  of 
which  is  a  door  giving  admission  to  a  small  coui't  surrounded 


Tomb  of  Xaevoleia  Tyche. 


by  a  high  wall.  The  entrance  to  the  chamber  is  at  the  back. 
From  the  level  of  the  outer  wall  rise  two  steps,  supporting  a 
marble  cippus  richly  ornamented.  Its  front  is  occupied  by  a 
bas-relief  and  inscription,  of  which  we  annex  a  copy  : — 

NAEVOLEIA  •  1  •  LIB  •  TYCHE  •  SIBI  •  ET 

C  .  MVNATJO  .  FAV6T0  •  A  \  G  •  ET  •  PAGA^'0 

CVl  .  DECVRIONES  •  COXSENSV  •  POPVLI 

BISELLIVM  .  OB  •  MEHITA  .  EIVS  •  DECREVERVNT 

HOC  •  iVIONniENTVM  •  NAEVOLEIA  •  TYCHE  •  LIBERTL^^  •  SVIS 

LIBERTABVSQ  •  ET  .  C  •  ]\]VXATI  •  FAVSTI  •  VIVA  .  FECIT 


TOMBS. 


519 


The  latter  is  to  the  following  purport : — "  NaBvoleia  Tyche, 
freed  woman  of  Julia  Tyche,  to  herself  and  to  Caius  Munatius 
Faustus,  Augustal,  and  magistrate  of  the  suburb,  to  whom 
the  Decurions,  with  the  consent  of  the  people,  have  granted 
the  honour  of  the  bisellium  for  his  merits.  Nsevoleia  Tyche 
erected  this  monument  in  her  lifetime  for  her  freedmen  and 
women,  and  for  those  of  C.  Munatius  Faustus."  The  por- 
trait below  is  probably  th^t  of  Nsevoleia ;  the  bas-relief  is 
supposed  to  represent  the  dedication  of  the  tomb.  On  one 
side  are  the  municipal  magistrates,  on  the  other  the  family 
of  NsBVoleia ;  in  the  centre  is  alow  altar,  upon  which  a  youth 
is  placing  some  offering,  and  by  it  a  cippus,  w^hich  is  to 
represent  the  tomb.  On  the  side  next  the  triclinium  is  a 
curious  bas-relief  of  a  ship,  w^hich  presents  us  with  some 


interesting  particulars  concerning  the  naval  architecture  of 
tlie  Komans.  The  ends  of  the  vessel  are  remarkable.  The 
prow  is  of  singular  shape,  not  clearly  defined,  and  does  not 
present  the  formidable  beak  of  a  ship  of  war  :  it  is  surmounted 
by  a  bust  of  Minerva.  The  poop  ends  in  a  swan  or  goose's 
neck  ()(r]VLo-Ko<;),  from  which  there  floats  a  flag :  another  flag 
is  to  be  seen  at  the  mast-head.  The  yard  consists  of  two 
spars  rudely  lashed  together.  At  the  mast-head  is  something 
resembling  a  large  block,  in  w^hich  ropes  are  fixed,  wdiich 
Mazois  says  are  the  halyards.  In  his  engraving  they  look 
more  like  shrouds ;  and  indeed  a  boy  is  making  use  of  them 
as  shrouds,  and  climbing  up  them.  The  crew  consists  of 
children  who  are  furling  the  sail.  A  man  sitting  at  the 
poop  holds  the  rudder,  and  is  said  to  represent  Munatius. 
Two  explanations  of  this  sculpture  are  given — one  literal, 


Bas-relief  of  Nievoieia  l  yche. 


TOMBS. 


521 


that  it  is  merely  indicative  of  the  profession  of  Munatius ; 
the  other  allegorical,  that  it  symbolises  the  arrival  of  the 
tossed  ship  of  life  in  a  quiet  haven.  The  reader  may  choose 
between  the  two,  as  the  gods  have  made  him  poetical  or  pro- 
saic* On  the  opposite  side  of  the  cippus  is  the  bisellium,  or 
seat  of  honour,  granted  to  Munatius. 


Bas-relief  on  the  Tomb  of  Naevoleia  Tyche. 


A  sort  of  solid  bench  for  the  reception  of  urns  runs  round 
the  funeral  chamber,  and  several  niches  are  hollowed  in  the 
wall.  Some  lamps  were  found  here,  and  many  urns,  three  of 
glass,  the  rest  of  common  earth.  The  glass  urns  were  of 
large  size,  one  of  them  fifteen  inches  in  height  by  ten 
in  diameter,  and  were  protected  from  injury  by  leaden  cases. 
They  contained,  when  found,  burnt  bones,  and  a  liquid  which 
has  been  analyzed,  and  found  to  consist  of  mingled  water, 
wine,  and  oil.  In  two  of  the  urns  it  was  of  a  reddish  tint,  in 
the  other  yellow,  oily  and  transparent.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  but  that  we  have  here  the  libations  which  were  poured 
as  a  last  tribute  of  friendship  upon  the  ashes  of  the  tenants  of 
the  tomb. 

*  In  support  of  the  latter  opinion,  Breton  adduces  several  instances  of  the 
allegorical  introduction  of  a  ship  in  funeial  monuments.    Pompeia,  p.  85,  seq. 


522 


POMPEII. 


The  burial-ground  of  Nistacidius,  marked  12,  offers  nothing 
to  detain  us.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  low  wall,  about  breast 
high,  and  contains  three  cippi  after  the  manner  of  wig- 
blocks. 

The  next  erection,  13,  is  of  novel  and  commanding  design. 
Within  a  court,  about  twenty- one  feet  square,  a  massive  base- 
ment rises  to  the  height  of  five  feet  and  a  half.  Three  steps 
lead  up  to  a  cippus  elegantly  carved.  In  front,  within  a 
rich  border,  is  the  inscription  : — 

C  .  CALVENTIO  •  QVIETO 
AVGVSTALI 
HVIC  .  OB  .  MVNIFICENT  •  DECVRIONVM 
DECRETO  .  ET  •  POPVLI  •  CO^SENSV  •  BISELLII 
HONOR  DATUS  •  EST  . 

To  Caius  Calventius  Quietus,  Augustal.  To  him,  in 
reward  of  his  munificence,  the  honour  of  the  bisellium  was 
granted  by  the  decree  of  the  Decurions,  and  with  the  consent 
of  the  people."    Below  is  a  representation  of  the  bisellium. 


Bisellium. 


It  is  to  be  remarked  that  all  those  who  are  mentioned  in 
inscriptions  as  possessing  the  privilege  of  the  bisellium  bear 
also  the  title  of  Augustal.  The  learned  Fabretti  supposes 
that  it  was  peculiar  to  this  class  of  priests,  but  at  the  same 
time  not  granted  to  all,  but  only  to  the  most  distinguished  of 
them.  This  distinction  was  purely  municipal :  it  conferred 
no  rank  or  precedence  beyond  the  walls  of  the  city  by  which 
it  was  granted ;  and  to  this  perhaps  it  is  owing,  that  while 


TOMBS 


523 


frequent  mention  of  the  bisellium  occurs  in  inscriptions, 
Varro  is  the  only  Latin  author  who  has  spoken  of  it  at  all. 
The  sides  are  ornamented  with  richly  cai-ved  garlands  of 
oak-leaves,  bound  with  fillets  ;  the  mouldings  and  cornice 
are  elegant  in  design  and  execution.  This  edifice  is  solid : 
it  was  therefore  no  place  of  burial,  but  a  cenotaph,  or  hono- 
rary tomb,  erected  to  Calventius  Quietus.  The  upper  part  is 
entirely  composed  of  marble  ;  the  basement  and  surrounding 
wall  are  of  masonry  coated  with  stucco.  Square  pinnacles, 
called  acroteria,  are  placed  on  the  wall,  their  sides  ornamented 
with  stucco  bas-reliefs  of  a  mythological  character.  One 
represents  Theseus  ;  another,  (Edipus  and  the  Sphinx,  where 
the  Theban  hero,  with  an  action  not  yet  out  of  use,  puts  his 
finger  to  his  forehead,  as  if  to  denote  that  he  has  there  the 
interpretation  of  the  riddle.  The  Sphinx  sits  on  a  rock, 
above  the  bodies  of  her  victims,  which  are  remarkable  as 
showing  some  traces  of  the  human  skeleton.  There  is  no 
door  of  access  to  the  little  area  surrounding  the  monument, 
but  the  wall  in  front  is  scarcely  four  feet  high  ;  at  the  sides 
it  is  higher,  and  the  back  rises  into  a  pediment  which  leads 
the  eye  well  up  to  the  lofty  cippus,  and  communicates  an 
agreeable  pyramidal  eficct  to  the  whole  design.  Tlic  extreme 
height  from  the  footway  is  about  seventeen  feet. 

An  unoccupied  space  iiitervenes  between  this  tomb  and  the 
next,  14,  which  bears  no  inscription.  It  is  a  round  tower 
enclosed  like  those  of  Naevoleia  and  Quietus,  with  a  wall  or 
septum,  ornamented  with  acroteria.  The  annexed  view  con- 
veys an  accurate  idea  of  its  external  appearance.  On  the 
riglit  is  the  tomb  of  Calventius  Quietus,  on  the  left  that  of 
Scaurus.  Here  also  we  fiad  bas-reliefs  upon  the  acroteria, 
one  remarkable  for  its  subject.  The  skeleton  of  a  child  re- 
poses on  a  heap  of  stones :  a  young  woman  stoops  over  it  in 
the  act  of  depositing  a  funeral  fillet.  A  touching  explanation 
of  this  singular  subject  has  been  proposed, — that  it  rei^resents 
the  discovery  of  a  child,  who  had  perished  in  the  earthquake, 
by  the  mother,  who  is  now  rendering  the  last  service  in  her 
power.  The  dress  of  the  female  is  still  preserved  in  the 
secluded  country  which  encircles  Sora.*  A  narrow  and  steep 
stair  leads  up  to  the  sepulchral  chamber,  which  is  vaulted 


*  Mazois,  p,  46. 


£24 


POMPEII. 


TOMBS. 


525 


somewhat  in  the  shape  of  a  bell,  and  painted  with  arabesque 
designs. 

Immediately  adj (fining  is  the  tomb  of  Seaurus,  the  bas- 
reliefs  on  Avhich,  relating  to  the  combats  of  the  amphitheatre, 
have  been  fully  described  in  the  first  part.*  In  the  interior 
of  this  tomb  is  a  vaulted  sepulchral  chamber,  the  arch  of 
which  and  the  upper  part  of  the  monument  are  supported  by  a 
massive  pier,  pierced  by  four  small  arches,  niches  rather, 


13as-i\  lief  on  a  \  iiinacle  of  the  wall  enclobing  the  Circular  Tomb. 

except  that  they  traverse  its  whole  thickness,  three  of  which 
were  closed  with  glass  and  the  fourth  with  a  thick  veil 
fastened  with  nails.  This  kind  of  tabernacle,  contrived 
thus  in  the  centre  of  the  pier,  did  not  contain  anything 
when  discovered,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  was  meant  for 

*  AH  the  figures  on  this  tomb  liave  now  disappeared  except  the  bas-reliet 
over  the  door.  Happily  Mazois  and  Millm  copied  them  soon  after  their  dis- 
covery.— Kd. 


526 


POMPEII 


a  lamp,  from  tlie  care  taken  to  shut  up  the  sides  with 
glass,  leaving  one  aperture  for  the  admission  of  air.  The 
arches  seem  to  have  been  closed,  that  the  wind  might  not  ex- 
tinguish the  lamp  when  the  door  was  opened.  Fourteen 


niches  pierced  round  the  inside  of  the  apartment  were 
destined  to  receive  as  many  cinerary  urns.  Daylight  was  ad- 
mitted through  a  small  opening  at  the  back  of  the  building, 
around  wh'ch  a  wall  is  drawn,  forming  a  small  enclosure. 


TOMBS. 


527 


Beyond  the  tomb  of  Scaurus  is  a  space  of  eighty  feet,  having 
one  unfinished  tomb.  Advancing  towards  the  city  we  then 
come  to  one  of  the  courts  of  the  villa  named  after  Cicero,  and 
pass  the  row  of  shops  which  stood  in  front  of  it.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  way,  opposite  to  the  tomb  of  Scaurus  and  this 


Semicircular  Exedra  in  the  Street  of  Tombs. 


empty  space,  is  a  long  rovv-  of  mean  shops,  with  courts  behind 
them,  conjectured  to  have  been  a  hostelry  for  the  peasants  who 
resorted  to  Pompeii ;  but  nothing  can  be  more  vague  than  this 
suj^position.  Adjoining  them  is  another  row  of  shops,  of  more 
pretension.    The  next  object  is  a  remarkable  exedra,  or  seat, 


528 


POMPEII. 


17,  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle,  and  vaulted  over.  As  it 
faces  the  south,  and  is  of  considerable  depth,  it  is  so  con- 
trived as  in  summer  to  afford  a  constant  shade,  and  in  winter 
to  receive  the  full  benefit  of  the  cheering  sun.  It  is  of  ca- 
pricious taste,  yet  not  inelegant ;  and  it  may  be  observed,  as 
a  peculiarity,  that  the  upper  pilasters  spring  immediately 
from  the  capitals  of  the  lower  ones.  Within  it  was  gaily, 
not  to  say  gaudily,  painted.  The  top  of  the  vault  is  blue, 
the  lower  part,  which  is  moulded  in  the  form  of  a  shell,  is 
white  ;  the  walls  are  divided  into  panels  by  black  borders 
relieved  by  golden  arabesques ;  and  the  panels  are  red,  with 
the  figure  of  some  animal  in  the  centre,  in  imitation  of  life. 
The  floor  is  placed  at  some  height  above  the  footpath ;  and 
to  facilitate  access  there  is  only  one  small  and  inconvenient 
stepping-stone.  The  projecting  eave  is  a  modern  addition, 
to  preserve  the  building.  Near  this  spot  the  skeletons  of  a 
female  with  an  infant  in  her  arms,  and  beside  her  of  two 
children,  their  bones  mingled  and  interlaced,  showing  that  at 
the  last  they  had  sought  comfort  in  each  other's  embrace,  were 
dug  up.  It  was  a  family  perhaps  of  distinction,  certainly  of 
wealth,  for  among  their  remains  two  pairs  of  earrings,  with 
pearl  pendants  of  great  value,  were  found,  and  three  gold 


rings,  one  of  them  in  the  form  of  a  serpent,  with  its  nead 
pointing  along  the  finger,  and  its  body  coiled  around  in 
several  folds.* 

Between  this  exedra  and  the  gate  of  the  city  there  are 
traced  on  the  plan  the  sites  of  several  unknown  tombs,  which 
it  is  not  necessary  to  describe ;  only  we  may  mention  that 
in  the  little  nameless  tomb  close  to  the  exedra  just  described, 
and  seen  in  the  view,  was  found  the  finest  glass  vase  that, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Portland  vase,  has  come  down  to 

*  The  Journals  of  the  Excavations  know  nothing  of  these  skeletons.  See 
Fomp.  Ant,  Hist,,  t.  i.  fasc.  iii.  p.  74  (Dec.  14,  1811). 


Gold  Ring. 


TOMBS. 


529 


us  from  antiquity.  The  glass  is  dark  blue,  and  is  ornamented 
with  a  white  opaque  relief,  representing  bacchanal  scenes  in 
the  midst  of  a  rich  foliage.  Hence  the  tomb  has  been  called 
the  Tomha  del  vaso  di  vetro  hlu.  The  vase  is  now  in  the 
Museum.    Just  beyond  is  the  Tomb  of  the  Garlands. 

Immediately  under  the  walls  of  the  towTi  a  road  turned  off  to 
the  left,  which  led  to  Nola,  and  enabled  travellers  who  had  no 
business  in  the  town  to  avoid  passing  through  its  crowded 
streets.  Between  this  road  and  the  city  gate  is  a  square  base- 
ment, 18,  probably  intended  to  support  a  colossal  statue  of 
bronze  :  at  least  some  fragments  of  such  a  statue  were  found 
about  it.  Nearly  opposite,  but  a  little  further  from  the  gate,  is 
the  beginning  of  another  road  leading  somewhere  to  the  right, 
along  the  side  of  Cicero's  villa.  Here,  at  the  angle  of  the  wall, 
there  w^as  formerly  a  stone  bracket,  apparently  to  receive  offer- 
ings of  fruit,  &c.,  by  the  side  of  which  an  immense  serpent  was 
painted,  in  the  act  of  stooping  his  head,  as  if  to  partake  of 
what  w^as  set  before  him.  This  relic  was  accidentally  de- 
stroyed by  the  carts  employed  in  removing  rubbish  from  the 
excavations  in  the  year  1813. 

Between  this  by-road  and  the  city  gate  there  is  a  group  of 
interesting  remains,  ^jfisisting  of  two  tombs  and  two  large 
uncovered  semicircular  seats.  The  first,  19,  is  raised  upon  a 
high  step  ;  it  is  about  seventeen  feet  in  diameter,  and  bears 
the  following  inscription,  occupying  the  whole  space  above 
the  bench,  which  is  finished,  and  supported  at  each  end  by  a 
lion's  paw  : — 

MAMIAE  .  P  .  F  .  SACERDOTI  •  PVBLICAE  •  LOCVS- 
SEPVLTVR  .  DATVS  •  DECVRIONVM  •  DECRETO- 

"  To  Mamia,  daughter  of  (probably)  Porcius,  public  priestess, 
a  place  of  burial  is  assigned  by  decree  of  the  Decurions." 
A  little  in  advance  of  this  seat  is  an  upright  stone,  with  an 
inscription  importing  that  the  Decurions  had  granted  to 
M.  Porcius  a  plot  of  ground  twenty-five  feet  square ;  and  im- 
mediately behind  is  a  tomb,  20,  which,  with  its  septum  or 
enclosure,  in  fact  does  occupy  about  that  space.  It  is  upon 
these  coincidences  we  imagine  that  P,  in  the  inscription  above 
given,  is  interpreted  Porcius,  and  tlie  tomb  of  which  we  have 
spoken  is  assigned  to  Mamia,  for  it  bears  no  inscription  to 
point  out  its  owner.    At  the  same  time,  the  tomb  between  the 

2  M 


530 


POMPEII. 


seats  occupies  about  the  same  space,  and  a  doubt  may  be  felt 
vvhicli  of  the  two  is  the  one  meant.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
tomb  in  question  is  more  than  usually  large  and  handsome. 
The  septum  is  worked  into  apertures  rounded  at  top,  which 
give  to  it  the  appearance  of  a  balustrade.  The  tomb  is  of 
masonry  covered  with  stucco,  and  ornamented  with  engaged 
columns,  which,  from  their  proportions,  appear  to  be  of  the 


Geometrical  elevation  of  the  Tomb  of  Alamia  restored. 


Corinthian  order,  but  the  capitals  are  gone.  Mazois  has 
given  a  restoration  of  it,  according  to  his  notions  of  the  cha- 
racteristics of  Pompeian  architecture  :  the  existing  part  may 
be  distinguished  by  the  uneven  line  which  bounds  it.  Several 
ill-executed  marble  statues,  now  in  the  Boyal  Museum  of 
Xaples,  were  found  in  the  interior,  which  was  set  round  with 
niches  :  the  walls  were  painted.  In  the  centre  is  a  large 
pedestal  which  j)robab]y  supported  the  urn  of  the  tenant. 


TOMBS. 


531 


Behind  this  tomb  is  a  spot  called  tlie  sepulchre  of  animals, 
because  many  skulls  and  half-burnt  bones  of  sheep  and  oxen 
have  been  found  there.  It  probably  was  a  spot  where  offer- 
ings were  made  to  the  dead.  An  altar  richly  ornamented 
with  fruit  and  garlands,  which  was  dug  up  here,  seems  to 
confirm  this  opinion. 

The  other  seat  is  very  similar  to  the  one  described,  and 
bore  an  inscription  to  one  M.  Veins.  The  tomb  between 
them  offers  nothing  worthy  of  notice.  One  building  only, 
placed  between  the  seat  and  the  city  gate,  remains  to  be 
described.  It  is  the  niche,  21,  which  has  been  sometimes 
taken  for  a  sentry-box ;  and  an  affecting  story  is  told  how 
the  skeleton  of  a  soldier,  still  grasping  his  lance,  was  found 
here,  together  with  the  usual  accoutrements  and  arms  ;  thus 
showing  that  he  had  died  in  the  discharge  of  his  duty,  a 
victim  of  Eoman  discipline.  Unfortunately,  how^ever,  this 
story  is  a  pure  fable.  The  Journals  of  the  Excavations 
know  nothing  of  this  soldier,  although  they  ahvays  particu- 
larly record  the  discovery  of  skeletons,  because  in  most  cases 
some  coilis  or  other  proj)erty  w^ere  found  near  them.* 
Moreover,  the  place  in  question  was  no  sentry-box,  but  a 
funeral  monument  of  an  Augustal  named  M.  Cerinius  Eesti- 
tutus,  as  appeared  from  an  inscription.! 

We  have  now  completed  our  circuit  of  that  portion  of 
Pompeii  which  has  been  restored  to  the  light  of  day.  To 
describe  every  building  would  have  been  useless,  even  in  a 
professed  guide-book.  It  has  been  our  endeavour  however 
to  omit  no  object  remarkable  either  for  beauty  or  singularity ; 
nothing  to  which  the  attention  of  those  who  have  the  good 
fortune  to  visit  the  spot  ought  to  be  directed.  Occasionally  we 
have  indulged  in  a  minuteness  of  detail,  especially  in  speaking 
of  the  interior  decorations  of  the  houses,  which  may  appear 
tedious  :  we  have  done  so,  however,  from  a  belief  that  with- 
out the  advantage  of  personal  inspection,  it  is  only  by  minute- 
ness of  description,  and  even  repetition,  that  any  sort  of  fami- 
liarity with  the  subject  can  be  attained.  In  conclusion,  we  have 
to  express  a  regret  that  the  small  size  of  our  illustrations,  and 
especially  the  want  of  coloured  plates,  prevent  our  doing  full 
justice  to  the  beauty  and  interest  of  this  remarkable  place. 

*  See  Ovei-bock,  B.  i.,  Anhamj,  Anmerk,  4,  S.  340. 
t  Pomp,  Ant,  Hist.,  t.  i.  p.  152  (Aug.  13th,  1763). 


532 


POMPEII. 


Money-bag  and  Coins. 


CHAPTEE  XII. 

DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 

The  immense  number  and  variety  of  statues,  lamps,  urns, 
articles  of  domestic  use,  in  metal  or  earthenware,  &c.,  dis- 
covered at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  have  rendered  the 
Museum  at  Naples  an  inexhaustible  treasury  of  information 
relative  to  the  private  life  of  the  ancient  Italians.*  To  give 
an  adequate  description  of  the  richness  and  variety  of  its 
contents  would  far  exceed  the  whole  extent  of  this  work, 
much  more  the  small  space  which  still  remains ;  but  that 
space  cannot  be  better  occupied  than  in  describing  some  few 
articles  which  possess  an  interest  from  the  ingenuity  of  their 
construction,  the  beauty  of  their  workmanship,  or  their  power 
to  illustrate  ancient  usages  or  ancient  authors. 

Writing  implements  are  among  the  most  important  of  the 
latter  class,  on  account  of  the  constant  mention  of  them,  as 
well  as  of  the  influence  which  the  comparative  ease  or  difficulty 
of  producing  copies  of  writing  is  always  found  to  exert  over 
society.  On  this  head  there  is  no  want  of  information.  The 
implements  used  are  frequently  mentioned,  especially  in 
familiar  writings,  as  the  letters  of  Cicero,  and  their  forms 
have  been  tolerably  ascertained  from  various  fragments  of 
ancient  paintings. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  for  manuscripts  of  any 

*  It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  th;it  there  is  no  good  catalogue,  and  that 
the  objects  are  very  difficult  to  find. — Ed. 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


533 


length,  and  snch  as  were  meant  to  be  preserved,  parcliment 
or  vellum,  and  a  vegetable  tissue  manufactured  from  the  rush 
papyrus,  were  in  use.  The  stalk  of  this  plant  consists  of  a 
number  of  thin  concentric  coats,  which  being  carefully 
detached,  were  pasted  crossways  one  over  the  other,  like  the 
warp  and  woof  in  woven  manufactures,  so  that  the  fibres  ran 
longitudinally  in  each  direction,  and  opposed  in  each  an 
equal  resistance  to  violence.  The  surface  was  then  polished 
with  a  shell,  or  some  hard  smooth  substance.  The  ink  used 
was  a  simple  black  liquid,  containing  no  mordant  to  give  it 
durability,  so  that  the  writing  was  easily  effaced  by  the 
application  of  a  sponge.  The  length  of  the  Greek  papyri  is 
said  to  vary  from  eight  to  twelve  inches :  the  Latin  often 
reach  sixteen :  the  writing  is  in  columns,  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  length  of  the  roll.  The  method  of  reading 
them  will  be  understood  from  the  woodcut,  in  which  is 
represented  one  open,  and,  below  it,  another  closed.  To 
each  of  them  is  appended  a  sort  of  ticket,  which  served  as  a 


Papyri  and  Tabute. 


title.  Hence  the  end  of  the  roll,  or  volume  (vohmen),  was 
called  frons,  a  term  of  frequent  recurrence  in  Ovid  and  Martial, 
and  not  always  rightly  understood.  Hence,  also,  when  we 
meet  with  the  expression,  gemina  frons ^  w^e  must  understand 
that  the  volume  had  a  ticket  at  each  end.  The  open  book  which 
stands  beside  them  is  one  of  those  which  w^ere  composed  of 
two  tables  or  pages,  and  served  for  memorandums,  letters, 
and  other  writings,  not  intended  to  be  preserved.  They  w  ere 
composed  of  leaves  of  wood  or  metal  coated  over  with  wax, 
upon  which  the  ancients  wrote  with  a  stylus,  or  iron  pen,  or 
point  rather,  for  it  was  a  solid  sharp-pointed  instrument,  some 


534 


POMPEII. 


inches  in  length,  like  a  lady's  stiletto  upon  a  lar^e  scale.  In 
the  middle  of  each  leaf  there  appears  to  have  been  a  button, 
called  6jx(f)a\.6s,  umbilicus,  intended  to  prevent  the  pages  touch- 
ing when  closed,  and  obliterating  the  letters  traced  on  the 
yieldmg  wax.  The  tablets  here  represented  would  be  called 
SiTrrvxov,  twofold,  as  consisting  only  of  two  leaves  :  in  the 
next  cut  may  be  seen  another  sort,  consisting  of  several  leaves 
(TroXvTTTvxov),  united  at  the  back  with  hinges  or  rings.  In 
Latin  they  were  called  tahidce,  or  tabellcp,  and  the  epithets, 
duplices,  triplices,  quintuplices,  served  to  mark  the  number 
of  the  leaves. 


Tabulae,  Calamus,  and  Papyrus. 

Beside  them  stands  a  double  inkstand,  intended  probably 
to  contain  both  black  and  red  ink.  The  former  was  made 
either  of  lampblack  or  some  other  sort  of  charcoal,  or  from 
the  cuttlefish,  and  was  called  atramentum.  As  it  contained 
no  mordant,  and  was  readily  obliterated  by  moisture,  it 
could  be  used  for  writing  upon  ivory  tablets ;  and  it  has 
been  conjectured  that  some  sorts  of  paper  were  covered 
with  a  wash,  or  varnish,  to  facilitate  the  discharge  of  the 
old  writing,  and  render  the  paper  serviceable  a  second 
time.  Eed  ink,  miltum,  was  prepared  from  cinnabar.  The 
reed,  cut  to  a  point,  which  lies  beside  the  inkstand,  is  the 
instrument  used  in  writing  with  ink  before  the  application  of 
quills.  It  was  called  calamus,  with  the  distinctive  epithets 
chartarius^  or  scriptorius.  The  open  papyrus  explains  how 
manuscripts  were  read,  rolled  up  at  each  end,  so  as  to  show 
only  the  column  of  writing  upon  which  the  student  was 
intent.  At  the  other  side  is  a  purse,  or  bag,  to  hold  the  reed, 
penknife,  and  other  writing  instruments. 

The  next  cut  represents,  besides  a  set  of  tablets  bound  up, 
a  single  one  hanging  from  a  nail.    Such,  probably,  were 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


535 


those  suspended  at  Epidaurus,  containing  remedies  by  wliicli 
the  sick  had  been  cured,  by  the  perusal  of  which  Hippocrates 
is  said  to  have  profited  in  the  compilation  of  his  medical 
works.  It  also  contains,  besides  a  papyrus  similar  to  those 
described,  a  hexagonal  inkstand,  with  a  ring  to  pass  the  finger 
through,  upon  which  there  lies  an  instrument  resenfbling  a 
reed,  but  the  absence  of  the  knots,  or  joints,  marks  it  to  be  a 
stylus.  Another  of  these  instruments  leaus  against  the  open 
book.  These  were  made  of  every  soi*t  of  material ;  sometimes 
with  the  precious  metals,  but  usually  of  iron,  and  on  occasion 


Tabula?,  Stylus,  and  Papyrus. 


might  be  turned  into  formidable  weapons.  It  was  with  h  is 
stylus  that  Caesar  stabbed  Casca  in  the  arm,  when  attacked  in 
the  senate  by  his  murderers ;  and  Caligula  emi^loyed  some 
person  to  put  to  death  a  senator  with  the  same  instruments. 
In  the  reign  of  Claudius  women  and  boys  were  searched  to 
ascertain  whether  there  were  styles  in  their  grapliiarice  tliecce, 
or  pen-cases.  Stabbing  with  the  pen,  therefore,  is  not  merely 
a  metaphorical  expression.  Tablets  such  as  those  here  re- 
presented, were  the  diurni,  or  day-books,  hreviarii  rationim, 


Tabular  and  Calamus. 


tahiilce  accej)ti  et  exyensi,  or  account-books.    When  they  were 
full,  or  when  the  writing  on  them  was  no  longer  useful,  the 
wax  was  smoothed,  and  they  were  ready  again  for  other  service. 
The  cut  above,  besides  an  inkstand,  represents  an  open  bock. 


536 


POMPEII. 


Tiie  tliinness  and  yellowish  colour  of  tlie  leaves,  wliich  are 
tied  together  with  ribbon,  denote  that  it  was  made  of  parch- 
ment or  veil  am. 

Below  is  a  cylindrical  box,  called  scrinium  and  capsa,  or 
capsula,  in  which  the  manuscripts  were  placed  vertically,  the 
titles  at  the  top.  Catullus  excuses  himself  to  Manlius  for 
not  having  sent  him  the  required  verses,  because  he  had  with 
him  only  one  box  of  his  books.  It  is  evident  that  a  great 
number  of  volumes  might  be  comprised  in  this  way  within  a 


Scriniuni  and  Capsa. 


small  space  ;  and  this  may  tend  to  explain  the  smallness  of 
the  ancient  libraries — at  least  of  the  rooms  which  are  con- 
sidered to  have  been  such.  Beside  the  box  are  two  tablets, 
which,  from  the  money-bag  and  coins  scattered  about,  had 
j)robably  been  used  in  reckoning  accounts.  This  will  bring 
to  the  student's  recollection  the 

 jMersam  poni  jubet  atque 

Effundi  saccos  nummorum  * 

of  Horace,  and  the  well-known  lines  of  Juvenal — 

 Pleno  cum  turget  sacculus  ore 

Ciescit  amor  iiummi  quantum  ipsa  pecunia  crescit.f 

No  perfect  papyri,  but  only  fragments,  have  been  found  at 
Pompeii,  i^t  Herculaneum,  uj)  to  the  year  1825,  1756  had 
been  obtained,  besides  many  others  destroyed  by  the  workmen, 
who  imagined  them  to  be  mere  sticks  of  charcoal.  Most  of 
them  were  found  in  a  suburban  villa,  in  a  room  of  small 


*  Sat.  ii.  3,  149. 


t  Juv.  xiv.  138. 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS, 


537 


dimensions,  ranged  in  presses  round  the  sides  of  the  room,  in 
the  centre  of  which  stood  a  sort  of  rectangular  bookcase. 
Sir  Humphry  Davy,  after  investigating  their  chemical  nature, 
arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  they  had  not  been  carbonised 
by  heat,  but  changed  by  the  long  action  of  air  and  moisture ; 
and  he  visited  Naples  in  hopes  of  rendering  the  resources 
of  chemistry  available  towards  deciphering  these  long-lost 
literary  treasures.  His  expectations,  however,  were  not  fully 
crowned  with  success,  although  the  partial  efficacy  of  his 
methods  was  established ;  and  he  relinquished  the  pursuit  at 
the  end  of  six  months,  partly  from  disappointment,  partly 
from  a  belief  that  vexatious  obstacles  were  thrown  in  his  way 
by  the  jealousy  of  the  persons  to  whom  the  task  of  unrolling 
had  been  intrusted.  About  five  hundi-ed  volumes  have  been 
well  and  neatly  unrolled.  It  is  rather  remarkable  that,  as 
far  as  we  are  acquainted,  no  manuscript  of  any  known  standard 
work  has  been  found,  nor  indeed  any  production  of  any  of 
the  great  luminaries  of  the  ancient  world.  The  most  cele- 
brated person,  of  whom  any  work  has  been  found,  is  Epicurus, 
whose  treatise.  Be  Natura,  has  been  successfully  unrolled. 
This  and  a  few  other  treatises  have  been  published.  The 
library  in  which  this  was  found  appears  to  have  been  rich 
in  treatises  on  the  Epicurean  philosophy.  The  only  Latin 
work  which  it  contained  was  a  poem,  attributed  to  Kabirius, 
on  the  war  of  Caesar  and  Antony. 

A  curious  literary  monument  has  been  found  in  the  shape 
of  a  calendar.  It  is  cut  on  a  square  block  of  marble,  upon 
each  side  of  which  three  months  are  registered  in  perpen- 
dicular columns,  each  headed  by  the  proper  sign  of  the 
zodiac.  The  information  given  may  be  classed  under  three 
heads,  astronomical,  agricultural,  and  religious.  The  first 
begins  with  the  name  of  the  month ;  then  follows  the  number 
of  days ;  then  the  nones,  which  in  eight  months  of  the  year 
fall  on  the  fifth  day,  and  were  thence  called  quintanas — in  the 
others  on  the  seventh,  and  were  therefore  called  septimanae. 
The  ides  are  not  mentioned,  because  seven  days  always 
elapsed  between  them  and  the  nones.  The  number  of  hours 
in  the  day  and  night  is  also  given,  the  integral  part  being 
given  by  the  usual  numerals,  the  fractional  by  an  S  for 
semissis,  the  half,  and  by  small  horizontal  lines  for  the 
quarters.     Lastly,  the  sign  of  the  zodiac  in  which  the  sun  is 


538 


P03rPEII. 


to  be  found  is  named,  and  the  days  of  the  equinoxes  and  of 
the  summer  solstice  are  determined :  for  the  winter  solstice 
we  read,  Hiemis  initlum,  the  beginning  of  winter.  Next  the 
calendar  proceeds  to  the  agricultural  portion,  in  which  the 
farmer  is  reminded  of  the  principal  operations  which  are  to 
be  done  within  the  month.  It  concludes  with  the  religious 
part,  in  ^vhich,  besides  indicating  the  god  under  whose 
guardianship  the  month  is  placed,  it  notes  the  religious 
festivals  which  fell  within  it.  and  warns  the  cultivator  against 
neglecting  the  worship  of  those  deities,  upon  whose  favour 
and  protection  the  success  of  his  labours  w^as  supposed  mainly 
to  depend. 


No  articles  of  ancient  manufacture  are  more  common  than 
lamps.  They  are  found  in  every  variety  of  form  and  size,  in 
clay  and  in  metal,  from  the  most  cheap  to  the  most  costly 
description.  A  large  and  handsome  gold  lamp  found  at 
Pompeii  in  1863  may  be  seen  in  the  Pomj^eian  room  at  the 
museum  in  Naples.  We  have  the  testimony  of  the  celebrated 
antiquary,  Winkelmann,  to  the  interest  of  this  subject.  "  I 
place  among  the  most  cmious  utensils  found  at  Herculaneum, 
the  lamps,  in  w^hich  the  ancients  sought  to  display  elegance, 
and  even  magnificence.  Lamps  of  every  sort  will  be  found 
in  the  museum  at  Portici,  both  in  clay  and  bronze,  but 
especially  the  latter  ;  and  as  the  ornaments  of  the  ancients 
have  generally  some  reference  to  some  particular  things,  we 


Calendar. 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


539 


often  meet  witli  rather  remarkable  subjects."  A  considerable 
number  of  these  articles  will  be  found  in  the  British  Museum, 
but  they  are  chiefly  of  the  commoner  sort.  All  the  works, 
however,  descriptive  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  present 
us  with  specimens  of  the  richer  and  more  remarkable  class, 
which  attract  admiration  both  by  the  beauty  of  the  w^orkman- 
ship  and  the  whimsical  variety  of  their  designs.  We  may 
enumerate  a  few  which  occur  in  a  work  now  before  us, 
'  Antiquites  d'Herculanum,'  in  which  we  find  a  Silenus,  with 
the  usual  peculiarities  of  figure  ascribed  to  the  jolly  god 
rather  exaggerated,  and  an  owl  sitting  upon  his  head  between 
two  huge  horns,  which  support  stands  for  lamps.  Another 
represents  a  flower-stalk  growing  out  of  a  circular  plinth, 
with  snail- shells  hanging  from  it  by  small  chains,  which  held 
the  oil  and  wick ;  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  with  lamps  suspended 
from  the  branches  ;  another,  a  naked  boy,  beautifully  wTOught, 
with  a  lamp  hanging  from  one  hand,  and  an  instrument  for 
trimming  it  from  the  other,  the  lamp  itself  representing  a 
theatrical  mask.  Beside  him  is  a  twisted  column  surmounted 
by  the  head  of  a  Faun  or  Bacchanal,  which  has  a  lid  in  its 
crown,  and  seems  intended  as  a  reservoir  of  oil.  The  boy 
and  pillar  are  both  placed  on  a  square  plateau  raised  upon 
lions'  claws.  But  beautiful  as  these  lamps  are,  the  light 
which  they  gave  must  have  been  weak  and  unsteady,  and 
little  superior  to  that  of  the  old-fashioned  common  street 
lamps,  with  which  indeed  they  are  identical  in  principle. 
The  wick  was  merely  a  fcAV  twisted  threads  drawn  through 
a  hole  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  oil-vessel,  and  there  was 
no  glass  to  steady  the  light  and  prevent  its  varying  with  every 
breeze  that  blew. 

Still,  though  the  Eomans  had  not  advanced  so  far  in  art  as 
to  ajiply  glass  chimneys  and  hollow  circular  wicks  to  their 
lamps,  they  had  experienced  the  inconvenience  of  going  home 
at  night  through  a  city  ill  paved,  ill  watched,  and  ill  lighted, 
and  accordingly  soon  invented  lanterns  to  meet  the  want. 
These,  we  learn  from  Martial,  who  has  several  epigrams  upon 
this  subject,  were  made  of  horn  or  bladder :  no  mention,  we 
believe,  occurs  of  glass  being  thus  employed.  The  rich  were 
preceded  by  a  slave  bearing  their  lantern.  This  Cicero 
mentions  as  being  the  habit  of  Catiline  upon  his  midnight 
expeditions ;  and  when  M.  Antony  was  accused  of  a  disgrace- 


540 


POMPEII. 


ful  intrigue,  his  lantern-bearer  was  tortured  to  extort  a  con- 
fession whither  he  had  conducted  his  master.*  One  of  these 
machines,  of  considerable  ingenuity  and  beauty  of  workman- 
ship, was  found  in  Herculaneum  in  1760,  and  another,  almost 


Elevation  of  a  Bronze  Lantern. 


exactly  the  same,  at  Pompeii,  a  few  years  after.  We  give  a 
drawing  and  a  section  of  the  former  to  explain  its  construction. 
In  form  it  is  cylindrical,  with  a  hemispherical  top,  and  it  is 
made  of  sheet-copper,  except  the  two  main  pieces,  M,  M, 


*  Yal.  Max.  vi. 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


541 


which  are  cast.  The  bottom  consists  of  a  flat,  circular  copper 
plate,  supported  by  three  balls,  and  turned  up  all  round  the 
rim  (h,  h,  in  the  section),  from  which  rise  the  rectangular 
supports,  M,  M,  which  support  the  upper  part  of  the  Irame, 


Section  of  a  Bronze  Lantern. 


The  top  and  bottom  were  further  connected  by  the  interior 
uprights,  P,  P,  between  which  and  M,  M  the  laminje  of  horn 
or  glass  were  placed,  and  secured  at  the  top  and  bottom  by  the 


542 


POMPEII. 


doublings  of  the  copper.  Horn  was  the  most  common 
substance  used  to  transmit  the  light,  but  bladder  and  other 
membranes  were  also  employed.  In  the  centre  of  the  lantern 
is  seen  the  small  lamp.  The  cover  is  hemispherical,  and 
lifts  up  and  down :  it  is  pierced  with  holes  for  the  admission 
of  air,  and  has  besides  the  characters  p'lBl'^Ro  i 'CATiS 
pricked  upon  it.  These  have  been  interpreted,  Tiburti  Cati 
Sum,  or  Tiburti  Cati  S.  (ervus),  indicating,  the  one  that  it 
belonged  to  Catus,  or  that  it  was  to  be  carried  by  his  slave. 

A.  Base.  6,  h,  Eim  of  the  base  turned  up.  c,  c.  Interior 
rim,  forming,  with  the  exterior  one,  h,  h,  a  channel,  c?,  d.  to 
receive  the  glass  or  horn  side.    e.  Knob  which  fitted  into  a 


hole,  g,  in  the  bottom  of  the  lamp^  to  keep  it  steady.  F. 
Lamp,  h,  h.  Oil  receiver,  i.  Moveable  cover  sloping  inwards, 
and  pierced  in  the  centre  to  receive  the  wick.  I.  Tube  to 
hold  the  wick,  with  a  vertical  slit  to  admit  the  oil.  M,  M. 
Supports.  N.  Band  round  the  top  of  the  lantern :  it  consists 
of  a  copper  plate  mth  two  edges  doubled  down,  so  as  to  form 
a  cavity,  o,  o,  to  receive  the  upper  edge  of  the  glass  or  horn. 
P,  P.  Interior  supports,  connected  with  M,  M,  by  pins,  4,  4, 
4,  4,  shown  in  the  separate  view  of  M.  q.  Space  for  the  horn 
sides,  r,  r.  Pieces  of  metal  of  uncertain  use.  S.  Cover,  t,  t,  t. 
Holes  to  let  off  the  smoke.    U.  Handle.    X.  Another  handle 


3 


Front  view  of  ^I,  M. 


Extinguisher. 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


543 


attached  to  a  vertical  rod  whicli  passes  through  U,  and  lifts 
up  the  cover,  which  receives  the  uprights,  M,  M,  into  two 
notches,  and  is  thus  kept  steady.  3.  View  of  the  upright, 
M.  6.  Extinguisher,  which  is  a  hemisphere  soldered  on  a 
narrow  curved  tube. 

One  of  the  most  elegant  articles  of  furniture  in  ancient  use 
was  the  candelabrum,  by  which  w^e  mean  those  tall  and 
slender  stands  which  served  to  support  a  lamj),  but  Vv^ere 
independent  of,  and  unconnected  with  it.  These,  in  their 
original  and  simple  form,  were  probably  mere  reeds  or  straight 
sticks,  fixed  upon  a  foot  by  peasants  to  raise  their  light  to  a 
convenient  height  ;  at  least  such  a  theory  of  their  origin  is 
agreeable  to  what  we  are  told,  of  the  rustic  manners  of  the 
early  Eomans,  and  it  is  in  some  degree  countenanced  by  the 
fashion  in  which  many  of  the  ancient  candelabra  are  made. 
Sometimes  the  stem  is  represented  as  throwing  out  buds ; 
sometimes  it  is  a  stick,  the  side  branches  of  which  have  been 
roughly  lopped,  leaving  projections  where  they  grew ;  some- 
times it  is  in  the  likeness  of  a  reed  or  cane,  the  stalk  being 
divided  into  joints.  Most  of  those  which  have  been  found  in 
the  buried  cities  are  of  bronze,  some  few  of  iron.  In  their 
general  plan  and  appearance  there  is  a  great  resemblance, 
though  the  details  of  the  ornaments  admit  of  infinite  variety. 
All  stand  on  three  feet,  usually  griffins'  or  lions'  claws,  which 
support  a  light  shaft,  plain  or  fluted  according  to  the  fancy  of 
the  maker.  The  whole  supports  either  a  plinth  large  enough 
for  a  lamp  to  stand  on,  or  a  socket  to  receive  a  wax  candle, 
which  the  Eomans  used  sometimes  instead  of  oil  in  lighting 
their  rooms.  Some  of  them  have  a  sliding  shaft,  like  that  of 
a  music  stand,  by  which  the  light  might  be  raised  or  lowered 
at  pleasure.  Of  the  two  candelabra  which  fill  page  544, 
one  is  of  the  simplest  form ;  the  other  deserves  notice  on 
account  of  the  ingenious  construction  by  wdiich  it  can  be 
taken  to  pieces  for  the  convenience  of  transport.  The  base 
is  formed  of  three  goat's  legs,  each  having  a  ring  at  the  end 
and  a  ring  on  each  side.  The  centre  piece  is  attached  to  the 
side  pieces  by  rivets,  3,  4,  round  which  these  rings  are  allowed 
to  turn,  so  that  they  lie  either  parallel  when  the  candelabrum 
is  taken  to  pieces,  or  may  be  made  to  stand  at  equal  distances 
in  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  in  which  case  the  two  ex- 
terior rings  lap  over  each  other,  and  are  united  by  a  moveable 


544 


po:y:pEii. 


Candelabra. 


T  BRADLt>  SC- 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


545 


pin.  The  end  rings,  5,  5,  5,  whieli  are  placed  at  different 
heights,  as  shown  at  h,  will  then  be  brought  into  the  same 
vertical  line,  and  the  round  pin,  C,  which  terminates  the 
stem,  passes  through  them,  and  is  secured  by  a  pin,  7,  passing 
through  the  hole,  8,  which  keeps  the  whole  tight.  The  shaft 
is  square  and  hollow,  terminated  by  two  busts  placed  back  to 
back,  and  surmounted  w^ith  a  kind  of  capital.  Within  this  a 
smaller  shaft,  c,  plays  up  and  down,  and  is  adjusted  at  the 
desired  height  by  a  pin,  /.  The  busts  represent  Mercury 
and  Perseus.  The  richer  sorts  of  candelabra  are  remarkable 
for  the  profusion  of  delicate  ornaments  which  is  bestowed 
upon  them.  Usually  the  relieved  parts  appear  to  be  cast  in 
a  mould.  Some  are  beautifully  damasked  or  inlaid  with 
other  metals.  The  upper  part  of  another  candelabrum  is 
represented  in  a  steel  plate  given  herewith.  It  is  inferred, 
from  a  passage  in  Pliny,  that  the  art  of  inlaying  was  carried 
to  perfection  in  iEgina,  while  the  solid  parts,  as  the  shaft  and 
feet,  were  best  cast  at  Tarentum.  We  give  the  passage  in  a 
note,  which  has  been  variously  interpreted,  and  hardly  bears 
out  all  the  meaning  wdiich  has  been  extracted  from  it  in  the 
above  version.* 

One  of  those  elegant  table  lamps,  by  the  praise  of  which 
the  present  discussion  was  introduced,  is  represented  in  the 
accompanying  plate.  Including  the  stand  it  is  three  feet  high. 
On  a  rectangular  plinth  rises  a  rectangular  pillar,  crowned 
by  a  capricious  capital.  On  the  front  of  the  j)illar  is  a  mask 
of  a  Bacchante,  with  fine  features  and  long  flowing  hair ;  and 
on  the  opposite  side,  the  head  of  a  bull,  with  the  Greek  word 
Bucranion.  From  the  extreme  points  of  the  abacus,  four 
ornamented  branches,  beautifully  chased,  project ;  the  lamj)s 
which  now  hang  from  them,  though  ancient  also,  are  not  those 
which  belong  to  the  stand,  and  were  not  found  with  it.  They 
are  nearly  alike  in  figure,  but  differ  in  size.  Three  of  them 
are  ornamented  with  various  animals,  the  fourth  is  plain. 
One  of  them  has  each  of  its  ends  w^rought  into  the  form  of  a 
shell.  Above  are  two  eagles  in  high  relief,  with  the  thunder- 
bolt of  Jupiter  in  their  talons.  Another  has  two  bulls'  heads, 
a  third,  two  elephants'  heads  projecting  from  the  sides.  The 

*  Privatim  iEgina  candelabrorum  siiptn-ficiem  duntaxat  elaboravit,  sicut 
Tarentum  scapos.  Jd  hoc  ergo  comniendatio  officinarum  est. — Hist.  Nat. 
xxxiv.  3. 

2  N 


546 


POMPEII. 


latter  is  suspended  by  two  dolphins,  instead  of  the  chains 
generally  in  use,  whose  tails  are  united,  and  attached  to  a 
small  ball  and  ring.  The  2^ilhir  is  not  placed  in  the  centre, 
but  at  one  end  of  the  plinth,  which  is  the  case  in  almost 
every  lamp  of  this  description  yet  found.  The  space  thus 
obtained  may  have  served  as  a  stand  for  the  oil-vase  used  in 
trimming  the  lamps.  The  plinth  is  beautifully  damasked,  or 
inlaid,  in  imitation  of  a  vine,  the  leaves  of  which  are  of  silver, 
the  stem  and  fruit  of  bright  brass.  On  one  side  is  an  altar 
with  wood  and  fire  upon  it ;  on  the  other  a  Bacchus,  naked, 
with  his  thick  hair  plaited  and  bound  with  ivy.  He  rides  a 
tiger,  and  has  his  left  hand  in  the  attitude  of  holding  reins, 
which  time  probably  has  destroyed  ;  with  the  right  he  raises 
a  drinking-horn.  The  workmanship  of  this  lamp  is  exquisitely 
delicate  in  all  its  parts. 

^Ye  may  here  say  a  few  words  on  the  art  of  inlaying  one 
metal  with  another,  in  which,  as  in  all  ornamental  branches 
of  the  working  of  metals,  the  ancient  Italians  possessed  great 
skill.  In  the  time  of  Seneca,  ornaments  of  silver  were  seldom 
seen  unless  their  price  was  enhanced  by  being  inlaid  with 
solid  gold.*  The  art  of  uniting  one  metal  with  another  was 
called,  by  the  general  term,  ferruminare.  Inlaid  work  was 
of  two  sorts,  in  the  one  the  inlaid  work  projected  above 
the  surface,  and  was  called  emhlemata,  as  the  art  itself  was 
called,  from  the  Greek,  enihletice.  It  is  inferred,  from  the 
inspection  of  numerous  embossed  vases  in  the  Neapolitan 
Museum,  that  this  embossed  w^ork  was  formed,  either  by 
plating  with  a  thin  leaf  of  metal  figures  already  raised  upon 
the  surface  of  the  article,  or  by  letting  the  solid  figures  into 
the  substance  of  the  vessel,  and  finishing  them  with  delicate 
tools  after  they  were  attached.  In  the  second  sort  the  inlaid 
work  was  even  with  the  surface,  and  was  called  crusta,'\  and 
the  art  was  called,  from  the  Greek,  empoestice.^  This  is  the 
same  as  the  damask  work  so  fashionable  in  the  armour  of  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  which  is  often  seen  beauti- 
fully inlaid  Tvith  gold.  It  was  executed  by  engraving  the 
pattern  upon  the  sm^face  of  the  metal,  and  filling  up  the  lines 
with  fine  plates  of  a  different  metal ;  the  two  were  then  united 
with  the  assistance  of  heat,  and  the  whole  burnished.  Pliny 


*  Ep.  5. 


t  Cic  vi.  ver.  52. 


t  Athenaeus. 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS.  547 

has  preserved  a  receipt  for  solder,  wliich  probably  was  used 
in  these  works.  It  is  called  santerna ;  and  the  principal  ingre- 


Bronze  figure  inlaid  with  embletic  work. 


dients  are  borax,  nitre,  and  copperas,  pounded  with  a  small 
quantity  of  gold  and  silver  in  a  copper  mortar. 

The  vase  which  accompanies  the  lamp  in  the  plate  just 


548 


POMPEII. 


given  was  foTind  in  a  house  opposite  to  tlie  side  door  of  the 
covered  portico  of  Eiuuachia.  It  is  very  elegant  in  shape, 
and  is  a  good  specimen  of  that  which  we  have  called  embletic 
work.  The  inlaid  ornaments  are  admirably  relieved  by  the 
deep  colour  of  the  bronze.  This  specimen  of  ancient  art  is 
worthy  to  serve  as  'a  model  to  goldsmiths  and  chasers  in 
metal.  There  are  six  different  mouldings  in  it,  each  rich  in 
variety  of  ornament.  The  beautiful  proportions,  and  corre- 
spondence of  the  body  and  the  foot,  are  also  deserving  of 
attention.  Another  vase  in  the  same  plate,  of  different  form, 
is  not  perhaps  less  beautiful.  It  has  three  handles,  one 
placed  vertically,  and  two  horizontally,  at  the  sides. 

We  give,  on  p.  547,  another  admirable  specimen  of  inlaid 
work,  in  a  bronze  figui'e  found  in  Pompeii  in  1824.  The 
cuirass  is  inlaid  with  silver.  The  upper  compartment  repre- 
.sents  Aj^ollo  encircled  with  rays,  driving  his  foiu'-horsed 
chariot :  beneath  is  an  allegorical  figure  of  the  earth,  flanked 
by  a  bull  on  one  side  and  a  goat  on  the  other.  Th^  figiu*e 
is  one  foot  eight  inches  in  height. 

Before  we  quit  this  subject  we  have  still  one  candelabrum 
to  notice,  which  for  simplicity  of  design  and  delicacy  of 
execution  is  hardly  to  be  sm-passed  by  any  in  the  Neapolitan 
collection.  The  stem  is  formed  of  a  liliaceous  plant,  divided 
into  two  branches,  each  of  which  supports  a  flat  disc,  which 
may  represent  the  flower,  upon  which  a  lamp  was  placed.  At 
the  base  is  a  mass  of  bronze  which  gives  stability  to  the 
whole,  upon  which  a  Silenus  is  seated,  earnestly  engaged  in 
trying  to  pour  wine  fi'om  a  skin  which  he  holds  in  his  left 
hand  into  a  cup  in  his  right.  In  this  figure  all  the  distinctive 
marks  of  the  companion  and  tutor  of  Bacchus  are  expressed 
with  great  skill ;  the  pointed  ears,  the  goat's  tail,  the  shaggy 
skin,  the  flat  nose,  and  the  am^^le  rotundity  of  body,  leave  no 
doubt  on  our  minds  as  to  the  person  intended  to  be  re2)resented. 
The  head,  especially,  is  admirable,  both  in  res2)ect  of  work- 
manship and  exi^ression. 

Some  remarkable  tripods  are  figured  and  described  in 
Mr.  Donaldson's  Pompeii,  and  others  will  be  foimd  in  the 
works  on  Herculaneum.  We  shall  only  speak  of  one,  which 
is  peculiar  in  construction,  being  contrived  to  open  or  shut  at 
pleasure.  Each  of  the  legs  is  united  to  the  others  by  two 
braces,  the  lower  ends  of  which  are  at  liberty  to  play  up  and 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS 


549 


down  upon  rings,  while  at  tlie  upper  ends,  and  at  the  point 
where  they  cross  each  other,  they  are  only  allowed  to  move 
round  a  pin,  or  hinge.  The  pan  at  top  merely  rests  upon  a 
ledge,  and  can  be  taken  off  at  pleasure.  It  is  evident  from 
the  construction,  that  the  legs  may  either  be  pushed  close 
together  or  drawn  further  apart,  until  the  rings  reach  the 


Candelabrum. 


limit  of  their  assigned  range  ;  and  thus  the  tripod  may  be 
made  to  receive  a  larger  or  smaller  vessel,  according  to  the 
purposes  for  which  it  is  wanted. 

Each  of  the  legs  is  topped  by  the  sacred  serpent  of  Egypt, 
bearing  the  lotus  on  its  head.  It  was  believed  that  this 
animal  had  the  power  of  killing  others  with  a  look ;  and,  as 
master  of  the  life  of  others,  it  was  reputed  immortal  and  sacred 


550 


POMPEII. 


to  the  gods,  on  whose  heads  it  was  often  represented.  We 
may  presume,  from  this  ornament,  that  this  vessel  belonged 
to  the  worship  of  Isis,  which  we  know  to  have  been  extensively 
practised  in  Pompeii. 


I  zza 


Moveable  Tripod. 

Another  interesting  class  of  household  articles  comprehends 
the  braziers,  which,  in  the  want  of  that  peculiarly  English  con- 
venience, an  open  fireplace,  served  at  once  to  warm  the  rooms, 
to  keep  dishes  hot,  or  boil  water,  and  perhaps  to  perform 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


551 


sucli  culinary  operations  as  required  no  elaborate  preparation. 
One  of  these,  intended  merely  to  heat  a  room,  we  have  already 
described  in  the  chapter  on  baths ;  that  which  is  here  repre- 
sented is  on  a  smaller  scale,  being  intended  for  private  use, 


Brazier. 

and  has  more  conveniences.  The  sides,  which  are  of  con- 
siderable thickness,  are  hollow,  and  intended  to  contain  water, 
and  the  four  turrets  at  the  four  corners  are  provided  with 
moveable  lids.  From  one  of  the  sides  there  projects  a  cock, 
to  draw  off  the  water.  The  centre,  of  course,  was  filled  with 
lighted  charcoal,  and  if  a  tripod  or  trivet  were  placed  above 
it,  many  processes  of  cooking,  such  as  boiling,  stewing,  or 


frying,  might  be  performed.  Such  a  brazier  as  this,  probably, 
was  placed,  in  the  winter,  near  the  triclinium,  where  it  would 
at  once  warm  the  dinner  party,  and  minister  in  all  its  various 
uses  to  the  service  of  the  triclinium.    Here  is  a  tripod,  such 


552 


POMPEII. 


as  miglit  be  used  for  the  above  purposes,  witli  its  pot  or  kettle, 
flanked  bj  a  frjing-pan  (sartago)  on  either  side.  The  pot 
here  figured  is  of  the  kind  called  cacabus,  a  cooking  vessel, 
which  is  to  be  distinguished  from  ahenum,  a  caldron  for 
boiling  T^'ater. 

Our  next  specimen  is  intended  for  the  same  uses,  but  is  far 
more  ornamental  in  its  character.  The  form  is  new  and 
elegant,  and  something  modelled  upon  this  pattern  might  be 


introduced  with  advantage  into  those  countries  where  chimneys 
and  fireplaces  are  not  in  general  use.  It  is  fourteen  inches 
square,  exclusive  of  a  semicircular  ^^rojection,  which  is  raised 
above  the  rim  of  the  brazier,  and  made  hollow  to  receive 
water.  On  the  edge  of  this  stand  thi-ee  eagles,  with  their 
heads  curving  doTOwards  towards  their  breasts,  intended  -pro- 
bably  to  support  a  boiler.  A  sort  of  tower  rises  at  the  side 
of  this  semicircular  part,  which  has  a  moveable  lid,  with  a 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


553 


bust  for  the  handle.  The  water  was  drawn  off,  as  in  the 
former  instance,  through  the  mask  in  front. 

The  following  vase,  if  not  equal  in  beauty  to  those  already 
described,  is  curious  in  form  and  rich  in  ornament.  The  lip 
is  elegantly  finished  with  a  double  row  of  ovoli.  The  handle 
is  elaborate  and  elegant.  Its  design  seems  taken  from  a 
flower-stalk,  which  divides  at  top,  and  falls  down  on  each  side 
of  the  vase  on  tv,^o  cornucopife.  Two  goats  recline  upon  the 
edge  of  the  vase,  looking  towards  each  other.  The  junction 
of  the  lower  end  of  the  handle  with  the  vase  is  richly  orna- 
mented with  acanthus  leaves,  and  a  winged  child  among  them, 
holding  a  wine-skin.     The  base  is  disproportionately  small. 


This  seems,  from  the  ornaments,  to  have  been  a  wine-vessel, 
and  probably  was  used  in  sacrifice,  as  well  as  in  domestic 


The  next  groups  of  vessels,  though  nearly  destitute  of  orna- 
ment, and  probably  of  a  very  ordinary  class,  will  serve  to 
give  us  some  idea  of  the  cooking  vessels  of  the  Eomans. 
The  first  four  are  ladles  (simpula),  used,  among  other  purposes, 
for  making  libations  from  larger  vessels.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  vases  in  the  Neapolitan  collection,  was  found  with 
a  bronze  simpulum  in  it ;  and  upon  the  vase  itself  there  was  a 
sacrificial  painting,  representing  a  priest  in  the  act  of  pom^ng 
out  a  libation  from  a  vase  with  the  simpulum. 


Bronze  Vase. 


life. 


554 


POMPEII. 


The  otlier  four  vessels  require  and  admit  of  little  explana- 
tion. The  first  seems  meant  to  hang  over  the  fire,  if  we  may 
judge  from  the  eye  at  the  top  of  the  handle,  which,  with  the 


Simpula, 


massive  leaves  and  volutes  below  the  rings,  and  the  ovolo 
moulding,  is  not  without  pretensions  to  elegance.  Fig.  2  is 
only  remarkable  for  a  double  handle,  which  lies  upon  the 


rim,  and  forms  as  it  were  an  upper  moulding.  Figs.  3  and  4 
are  plain.  Even  these  common  vessels  are  not  without  a 
certain  degree  of  elegance,  both  in  form  and  workmanship. 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


555 


Great  numbers  of  clay  vases  have  been  found,  of  whicli  the 
following  is  a  very  beautiful  specimen.  The  lip  and  base 
have  the  favourite  ovolo  moulding  ;  the  body  has  two  rows  of 
fluting  separated  by  a  transverse  band,  charged  with  leaves, 

3  4 


Kitchen  Utensils  of  Bronze, 


and  with  a  swan  in  the  centre.  The  neck  of  the  vase  is 
painted,  and  the  same  subject  is  given  on  each  side.  It  repre- 
sents a  chariot,  drawn  by  four  animals  at  full  gallop,  which 
appear  to  be  intermediate  between  tigers  and  panthers.  A 


Terra-cotta  Vase. 


winged  genius  directs  them  with  his  left  hand,  while  with  his 
right  he  goads  them  with  a  javelin.  Another  winged  figure 
preceding  the  quadriga,  with  a  thyrsus  in  his  left  hand,  is  in 
the  act  of  seizing  the  bridle  of  one  of  the  animals.  The 


556 


POMPEII. 


whole  is  painted  in  white  on  a  black  ground,  except  some  few 
of  the  details,  which  are  yellow,  and  the  car  and  mantle  of 
the  genius,  which  are  red.  The  handles  represent  knotted 
cords,  or  flexible  branches  interlaced,  which  terminate  in  the 
heads  of  animals.  This  vase  is  much  cracked,  probably  in 
consequence  of  the  violence  of  the  fire. 

Some  drinking  vessels  of  peculiar  construction  have  been 
found,  which  merit  a  particular  descrij)tion.  The  first  are 
of  the  class  called  pvra,  or  ptTt^es,  from  prw,  to  draw  off 
liquid.  These  w^ere  in  the  shape  of  a  horn,  the  primitive 
drinking-vessel,  and  had  commonly  a  hole  at  the  point,  to 
be  closed  wdth  tlie  finger,  until  the  drinker,  raising  it  above 
his  mouth,  suffered  the  liquor  to  flow  in  a  stream  from  the 
orifice,  in  the  manner  represented  on  p.  311.  This  method  of 
drinking,  which  is  still  practised  in  some  parts  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, must  require  great  skill  in  order  to  hit  the  mark 


pvTov,  or  Drinking-cup. 


exactly.  Sometimes  the  hole  at  the  tip  was  closed,  and  one 
or  two  handles  fitted  to  the  side,  and  then  the  base  formed 
the  mouth ;  and  sometimes  the  w^himsical  fancy  of  the  potter 
fashioned  it  into  the  head  of  a  pig,  a  stag,  or  any  othar  ani- 
mal. One  in  the  Neapolitan  Museum  has  the  head  of  an 
eagle  with  the  ears  of  a  ram.    These  vases  are  usually  of 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


557 


clay,  but  cheap  as  is  the  material,  it  is  evident  by  their  good 
workmanshi])  that  they  were  not  made  by  the  lowest  artists. 


Grotesque  Vasps. 


Above  we  give  a  group  of  vases  of  grotesque  character, 
such  as  those  to  which  Martial  alludes  in  the  epigram  which 
we  quote  below.*  "  T  am  the  whim  of  the  potter,  the  mask 
of  the  red-haired  Batavian  :  boys  fear  my  face,  though  you 
laugh  at  it."  One  of  them  is  more  remarkable  than  the 
others ;  it  represents  the  head  of  a  Persian  king,  as  we  may 
conjecture  from  the  upright  tiara,  which  rises  from  a  diadem 
pierced  with  holes,  and  has  upon  it  two  Persian  figures,  which 
are  scarcely  discernible  in  our  engraving.  The  features 
have  something  of  the  character  of  a  bugbear :  wide,  open 
eyes,  ass's  ears,  a  long  beard,  and  a  most  tremendous  pair  of 
mustachios,  ever  sedulously  cherished  by  the  eastern  nations. 
In  forming  these  caricatures,  however,  the  artist  had  a  graver 
end  in  view  than  either  amusing  men  or  frightening  boys — 
that  of  guarding  the  drinker  while  in  a  helpless  state  of 
intoxication  from  the  malign  influence  of  an  evil  eye  or  the 
wiles  of  enchantment ;  for  among  the  ancients,  who  believed 
devoutly  in  the  power  of  drugs  and  sorceries  of  all  kinds, 
the  salutary  power  of  averting  those  evils  was  assigned  to  all 
such  grotesque  figures  as  we  have  here  described. 

The  learned  seem  to  have  been  generally  mistaken  on  the 
subject  of  glass-making  among  the  ancients,  who  appear  to 

*  Sum  figuli  lusus  Rufi  persona  Batavi : 

Qux  tu  derides,  hacc  timet  ora  puer. — Mart.  xiy.  176. 


558 


POMPEII. 


have  been  far  more  skilful  than  had  been  imagined.  The 
vast  collection  of  bottles,  vases,  glasses,  and  other  utensils, 
discovered  at  Pompeii,  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  ancients 
were  well  acquainted  with  the  art  of  glass-blowing. 


On  the  next  page  we  have  something  like  a  wine-basket, 
made  of  clay,  called  ayyoOrjKy]^  or  lyyvoOrjKrj,  by  the  Greeks, 
and  incitega  by  the  Eomans,  containing  two  glass  vessels,  of 
the  kind  called  o^vfSacfiov,  because,  being  narrow  in  the  neck, 
the  liquor  came  out  drop  by  drop. 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


559 


There  is  no  doubt  but  tbat  the  Romans  possessed  glass  in 
sufficient  plenty  to  apply  it  to  purposes  of  household  orna- 
ment. The  raw  material  appears  from  Pliny's  account  to 
have  imdergone  two  fusions ;   the  first  converted  it  into  a 


Liquor-basket  of  clay,  with  Glass  Vessels. 


rough  mass  called  ammonitrum,  which  was  melted  again  and 
became  pure  glass.  We  are  also  told  of  a  dark  coloured  glass 
resembling  obsidian,  plentiful  enough  to  be  cast  into  solid 


Ornamental  drinking-glasses,  cast  in  a  mould, 

statues.  Pliny  mentions  having  seen  images  of  Augustus 
cast  in  this  substance.*  It  probably^  was  some  coarse  kind  of 
glass  resembling  the  ammonitrum,  or  such  as  that  in  which 
the  scoriae  of  our  iron  furnaces  abound.  Glass  was  worked 
either  by  blowing  it  with  a  pipe,  as  is  now  practised,  by  turn- 
ing in  a  lathe,  by  engraving  and  carving  it,  or,  as  we  have 
noticed,  by  casting  it  in  a  mould. |  These  two  glasses,  of 
*  xxxvi.  67.  t  lb.  66. 


560 


POMPEII. 


elegant  form,  appear  to  liave  been  formed  in  tlie  latter  way. 
The  ancients  had  certainly  acquired  great  skill  in  the  manu- 
facture, as  appears  both  from  the  accounts  which  have  been 
23reserved  by  ancient  authors,  and  by  the  specimens  which 
fetill  exist — among  which  we  ma}^  notice,  as  pre-eminently 
beautiful,  that  torment  of  antiquaries,  the  Portland  vase,  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum.  We  have  already  adverted 
to  another  vase  of  the  same  kind,  and  of  almost  equal  beauty, 
found  in  one  of  the  tombs  near  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum. 
A  remarkable  story  is  told  by  Dion  Cassius,  of  a  man  who, 
in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  brought  a  glass  cup 
into  the  imperial  presence  and  dashed  it  on  the  ground. 
To  the  wonder  of  the  spectators,  the  vessel  bent  under  the 
blow  without  breaking,  and  the  ingenious  artist  immediately 
hammered  out  the  bruise,  and  restored  it  whole  and  sound 
to  its  original  form ;  in  return  for  which  display  of  his 
skill,  Tiberius,  it  is  said,  ordered  him  to  be  immediately 
put  to  death.  The  story  is  a  strange  one,  yet  it  is  con- 
firmed by  Pliny,  who  both  mentions  the  discovery  itself, 
and  gives  a  clue  to  the  motives  which  may  have  urged  the 
emperor  to  a  cruelty  a^^parently  so  unprovoked.  He  speaks 
of  an  artificer  who  had  invented  a  method  of  making 
flexible  glass,  and  adds  that  Tiberius  banished  him,  lest 
this  new  fashion  should  injure  the  workers  in  metal,*  of 
whose  trade  the  manufacture  of  gold,  silver,  and  other  drink- 
ing-cups,  and  furniture  for  the  table,  formed  an  extensive  and 
important  branch. 

The  Komans  were  also  well  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
colouring  glass,  as  appears,  among  other  proofs,  from  the 
glass  mosaics,  of  which  mention  has  been  made.  Pliny  speaks 
of  a  blood-red  sort,  called  haematinon,  from  at/xa,  blood,  of 
white  glass,  blue  glass,  &c.  The  most  valuable  sort  however 
was  the  colourless  crystal  glass,  for  two  cups  of  which,  with 
handles  on  each  side  (Trrepwra),  Nero  gave  6000  sesterces,| 
about  48Z.  Under  this  head  we  may  speak  of  the  vases  called 
murrliina,  since  one  theory  respecting  them  is,  that  they 
were  made  of  variegated  glass.  Their  nature  however  is 
doubtful,  not  so  their  value.  Pliny  speaks  of  70  talents 
being  given  for  one  holding  three  sextarii,  about  four  and  a 


+  xxxvi.  67. 


t  lb.  67. 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS.  561 

half  pints.  Titus  Petronius  on  his  death-bed  defrauded  the 
avarice  of  Nero,  who  had  compelled  him,  by  a  common  piece 
of  tyranny,  to  appoint  the  crown  his  heir  by  breaking  a 
murrhine  truUa,  or  flat  bowl,  worth  300  talents.  Nero  him- 
self, as  became  a  prince,  outdid  all  by  giving  100  talents  for 
a  single  capis,  or  drinking-cup,  "  a  memorable  circumstance, 
that  an  emperor,  and  father  of  his  country,  should  have  drank 
at  so  dear  a  rate."*  Pliny's  description  of  this  substance 
runs  thus : — 

"It  is  to  be  noticed  that  we  have  these  rich  cassidoin  | 
vessels  (called  in  Latin  murrhina)  from  the  East,  and  that 
from  places  otherwise  not  greatly  renowned,  but  most  within 
the  kingdom  of  Parthia ;  howbeit  the  princi23al  come  from 
Carmania.  The  stone  whereof  these  vessels  are  made  is 
thought  to  be  a  certain  humour,  thickened  as  it  were  in  the 
earth  by  heat.  In  no  place  are  these  stones  found  larger  than 
small  tablements  of  pillars  or  the  like,  and  seldom  were  they 
so  thick  as  to  serve  for  such  a  drinking-cup  as  I  have  spoken 
of  already.  Eesplendent  arc  they  in  some  sort,  but  it  may 
rather  be  termed  a  gloss  than  a  radiant  and  transparent  clear- 
ness ;  but  that  which  maketh  them  so  much  esteemed  is  the 
variety  of  colours,  for  in  these  stones  a  man  shall  perceive 
certain  veins  or  spots,  which,  as  they  be  turned  about,  re- 
semble divers  colours,  inclining  partly  to  purple  and  partly 
to  white  :  he  shall  see  them  also  of  a  third  colour  composed 
of  them  both,  resembling  the  flame  of  fire.  Thus  they  pass 
from  one  to  another  as  a  man  holdeth  them,  insomuch  as  their 
purple  seemeth  near  akin  to  white,  and  their  milky  white  to 
bear  as  much  on  the  purple.J  Some  esteem  those  cassidoin, 
or  murrhine  stones,  the  richest,  which  present  as  it  were 
certain  reverberations  of  sundry  colours  meeting  altogether 
about  their  edges  and  extremities,  such  as  we  observe  in  rain- 
bows ;  others  are  delighted  with  certain  fatty  spots  appearing 
in  them ;  and  no  account  is  made  of  them  which  show  either 
pale  6v  transparent  in  any  part  of  them,  for  these  be  reckoned 
great  faults  and  blemishes  ;  in  like  manner,  if  there  be  seen 
in  the  cassidoin  any  spots  like  corns  of  salt  or  warts,  for  then 

*  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxxvii.  7.     The  capis,  therefore  (so  called  a  capiendo 
because  it  had  handles),  must  have  been  much  smaller  than  the  trulla. 
Chalcedony.    It  is  thus  that  Holland  interprets  the  word. 
J  Purpura  candescente,  aut  lacte  rubesceute. 

2  o 


562 


POMPEII. 


are  they  considered  apt  to  split.  Finally,  the  cassidoin  stones 
are  commended  in.  some  sort  also  for  the  smell  that  they  do 
yield."* 

On  these  words  of  Pliny  a  great  dispute  has  arisen.  Some 
think  that  onyx  is  the  material  described,  a  conjecture  founded 
on  the  variety  of  colours  which  that  stone  presents.  To  this 
it  is  objected,  that  onyx  and  murrha,  onyx  vases  and  murrhine 
vases  are  alike  mentioned  by  Latin  writers,  and  never  with 
any  hint  as  to  their  identity ;  nay,  there  is  a  passage  in  which 
Heliogabalus  is  said  to  have  onyx  and  murrhine  vases  in  con- 
stant use.f  Others,  as  w^e  have  said,  think  that  they  were 
variegated  glass ;  others  that  they  were  the  true  Chinese 
porcelain,  a  conjectui'e  in  some  degree  strengthened  by  a  line 
of  Propertius : — 

"MuiTheaq.  in  Parthis  pocula  cocta  focis." 

At  the  same  time  this  quotation  is  not  so  conclusive  as  it 
might  have  been,  since  Pliny  speaks  of  murrha  as  "  hardened 
in  the  earth  by  heat,"  and  the  poet  may  only  have  meant  the 
same  thing,  though  the  expression  in  that  case  would  be 
somewhat  strained.  To  us,  Pliny's  description  appears  to 
point  clearly  to  some  opaline  substance;  the  precious  opal 
has  never  in  modern  times  been  found  in  masses  approaching 
to  the  size  necessary  to  make  vessels  such  as  we  have  spoken 
of.  The  question  is  not  likely  to  be  settled,  and  it  is  not 
improbable  that  the  material  of  these  murrhine  vases  is 
entirely  unkno^Ti  tons,  as  the  quarries  of  many  marbles  used 
by  the  ancients  have  hitherto  eluded  our  research,  and  the 
marbles  themselves  are  only  known  by  their  recurrence 
among  ancient  buildings. 

We  may  here  notice  one  or  two  facts  connected  with  glass, 
which  show  that  the  ancients  were  on  the  verge  of  making 
one  or  two  very  important  discoveries  in  physical  science. 
They  were  acquainted  with  the  power  of  transparent  sj^herical 
bodies  to  produce  heat  by  the  transmission  of  light,  though 
not  with  the  manner  in  which  that  heat  was  generated  by  the 
concentration  of  the  solar  rays.  Pliny  mentions  the  fact 
that  hollow  glass  balls  .filled  with  w^ater  would,  when  held 

*  Holland's  Pliny,  xxxvii.  2  "^Sth  edit.,  Valpy). 

t  Heliogabalus  in  murrhinis  el  onychiois  minxit. — lAmpridius,  ap.  Mont- 
faucon,  vol.  v. 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


563 


opposite  to  tlie  sun,  grow  hot  enough  to  burn  any  cloth  they 
touched  ;*  but  the  turn  of  his  expression  evidently  leads  to 
the  conclusion  that  he  believed  the  heat  to  become  accumu- 
lated in  the  glass  itself,  not  merely  to  be  transmitted  through 
it.  Seneca  speaks  of  similar  glass  balls  whidi  magnified 
minute  objects  to  the  view.f  Nay,  he  had  nearly  stumbled 
on  a  more  remarkable  discovery,  the  composition  of  light,  for 
he  mentions  the  possibility  of  producing  an  artificial  rainbow 
by  the  use  of  an  angular  glass  rod.+  At  a  far  earlier  period 
Aristophanes  speaks  of  the  "  vaXos,  a  transparent  substance 
used  to  light  fiires  with,"  usually  translated  glass.  The  pas- 
sage is  curious,  as  it  shows  a  perfect  acquaintance  with  the 
use  of  the  burning  glass. 

Strepsiades. — You  have  noted 
A  pretty  toy,  a  trinket  in  the  shops, 
Which  being  rightly  held,  produces  fire 
From  things  combustible. 

Socrates.  A  burning  glass 

Vulgarly  called. 

Strep,  You  are  right,  'tis  so. 

Soc.  Proceed. 

Strep. — Put  now  the  case — your  scoundrel  bailiff  comes, 
Shows  me  his  writ— I,  standing  thus,  d'ye  mark  me. 
In  the  sun's  stream,  measuring  my  distance,  guide 
IVly  focus  to  a  point  upon  his  writ. 
And  off  it  goes,  in  fumo  !  § 


*  Plin.  xxxvi.  j67.  Cum  addita  aqua  vitreae  pilae  sole  adverso  in  tantum 
excandescunt  ut  vestes  exurant. 

f  But  though  he  had  observed  the  fact,  he  had  not  even  approached  to  the 
cause  of  it,  for  he  refers  the  magnifying  power  solely  to  the  water,  in  common 
with  all  other  fluids,  and  evidently  supposes  that  a  plane  surface  would 
magnify  as  well  as  a  spherical  one.  "  [llud  adjiciam,  omnia  per  aquam 
videntibus  longe  esse  majora.    Literae  quamvis  minutae  et  obscurae,  per  vitream 

pilam  aqua  plenam  majores  clarioresq.  cernuntur  Si  poculum  impleveris 

aqua  et  in  id  conjeceris  annul um  .  .  cum  in  ipso  fundo  jaceat  annulus,  facies 
ejus  in  summo  aquae  redditur.  Quidquid  videtur  per  humorem,  longe  amplius 
vero  est." — Quaest.  Nat.  i.  6. 

J  "  Virgula  solet  fieri  vitrea,  stricta,  seu  pluribus  angulis  m  modum  clavae 
torosa:  ha3C  si  ex  adverso  solem  accepit,  colorem  talem  qualis  in  arcu  videri 
solet,  reddit."  He  goes  on  to  say  that  this  is  because  it  tries  to  give  an  image 
of  the  sun,  but  cannot  manage  it,  '*quia  enormiter  facta  est,"  because  it  is 
irregularly  made :  "  si  apte  fabricata  foret,  totidem  redderet  soles,  quot 
habuisset  infecturas,"  if  it  were  fitly  made  it  would  give  as  many  suns  as  it 
does  colours. — lb.  7. 

§  Arist.  N€</>.  766,  ed  Brunck. 


564 


POMPEII. 


With  the  laws  of  reflection  the  ancients,  as  we  know  from 
the  performances  ascribed  to  Archimedes,  were  well  ac- 
quainted. It  is  singular  that  being  in  possession  of  such  re- 
markable facts  connected  with  refraction,  they  should  never 
have  proceeded  to  investigate  the  laws  by  which  it  is  governed. 

The  first  object  figured  in  the  annexed  block,  is  a  glass 
funnel,  infundibidum ;  the  second  is  described  as  a  wine- 
strainer,  but  the  method  of  its  use  is  not  altogether  clear. 
The  bottom  is  slightly  concave,  and  pierced  with  holes.  It 
is  supposed  to  have  been  used  as  a  sort  of  tap,  the  larger  part 


Glass  Vessels. 


being  placed  within  the  barrel,  and  the  wine  drawn  off  through 
the  neck  or  spout,  which  is  broken.  Fig.  3  is  a  wine-taster, 
something  on  the  principle  of  a  siphon.  It  is  hollow,  and  the 
air  being  exhausted  by  the  mouth  at  the  small  end,  the  liquid 
to  be  tasted  was  drawn  up  into  the  cavity. 


Bronze  Strainer. 


Another  sort  of  strainer,  of  which  there  are  several  in  the 
Neapolitan  Museum,  is  made  of  bronze,  pierced  in  elegant 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


565 


and  intricate  patterns.  The  Eomans  used  strainers  filled 
with  snow  to  cool  their  wines,  and  such  may  have  been  the 
destination  of  the  one  here  represented.  These  were  called 
coIqj  vinaria,  or  nivaria.  The  poor  used  a  linen  cloth  for  the 
same  purpose.* 

With  respect  to  the  details  of  dress,  the  excavations,  whether 
at  Pompeii  or  Herculaneum,  enable  us  to  clear  up  no  difficul- 
ties, and  to  add  little  to  that  which  is  already  known  on  this 
subject.  Still  a  short  notice  of  the  principal  articles  of  dress, 
and  explanation  of  their  Latin  names,  may  be  expedient  for 
the  full  understanding  of  some  parts  of  our  subject.  The 
male  costume  will  detain  us  a  very  short  time.  The  proper 
Koman  dress,  for  it  would  be  tiresome  and  unprofitable  to 
enter  upon  the  variety  of  garments  introduced  in  later  times 
from  foreign  nations,  consisted  merely  of  the  toga  and 
tunica,  the  latter  being  itself  an  innovation  on  the  simple 
and  hardy  habit  of  ancient  times.  It  was  a  woollen  vest,  for 
it  was  lato  before  the  use  of  linen  was  introduced,  reachin^i 
to  the  knees,  and  at  first  made  without  sleeves,  which  were 
considered  effeminate ;  but  as  luxury  crept  in,  not  only  were 
sleeves  used,  but  the  number  of  tunics  was  increased  to  three 
or  four.  The  toga  was  an  ample  semicircular  garment,  also 
without  sleeves.  It  is  described  as  having  an  opening  large 
enough  to  admit  the  head  and  the  right  arm  and  shoulder, 
which  were  left  exposed,  having  a  sort  of  lappet,  or  flap 
(lacinia),  which  was  brought  under  the  right  arm  and  thrown 
over  the  left  shoulder,  forming  the  sinus,  or  bosom,  the  deep 
folds  of  which  served  as  a  sort  of  pocket.  This  is  the  com- 
mon description,  which,  we  confess,  conveys  no  very  clear 
notion  of  the  construction  or  appearance  of  the  dress.  The 
left  arm  was  entirely  covered,  or  if  exposed,  it  was  by  gather- 
ing up  the  lower  edge  of  the  ample  garment. 

The  female  dress  consisted  of  one  or  more  tunics,  with  an 
upper  garment,  called  stola,  which  superseded  the  toga, 
originally  worn  by  women  as  well  as  men.  The  stola  is 
said  to  have  been  a  more  ample  and  ornamented  sort  of  tunic. 
The  tunic  worn  by  women  does  not  seem  to  have  difiered 
from  that  worn  by  men,  except  that  it  reached  to  the  feet. 
Above  the  stola,  women  wore  a  mantle  called  palla  or  pallium, 

*  Attenuare  nives  iiorunt  et  lintea  nostra  ; 
Frigidior  colo  non  sal  it  unda  tuo. — Mart.  xir. 


po:mpeii. 


This  is  said  to  have  been  thrown  across  the  shoulders,  the 
right  end  being  gathered  up  and  thrown  over  the  left 
shoulder,  leaving  nothing  but  the  right  hand  visible,*  a 
descrij^tion  which  does  not  tally  with  the  annexed  figure, 
taken  from  a  statue  found  at  Herculaneum,  of  a  female 
clothed  in  a  tunic  and  pallium,  in  which  the  right  arm  and 


Draped  Female  Statue  discovered  in  Herculaneum. 

shoulaer  are  uncovered.  Here  the  pallium  is  short,  after  the 
Greek  fashion ;  the  ladies  of  Eome  wore  it  trailing  on  the 
ground.  The  tunic  has  short  sleeves  which  are  fastened  by 
buttons.  The  hair  of  this  statue  was  gilt,  though,  since  it 
has  been  exposed  to  the  air,  the  lustre  is  gone,  and  nothing 
but  a  dull  yellow  colour  remains.  This  singular  and  tasteless 
style  of  ornament  may  be  explained  by  a  senseless  and  extra- 
vagant fashion  which  prevailed,  while  blond  hair  was  in 
fashion,  of  powdering  the  head  with  gold  dust.  The  custom 
was  imported  from  the*  East,  where  it  was  practised,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus,  by  the  Jews.  Several  of  the  Eoman 
emperors  adopted  it.  The  hair  of  Commodus  was  so  brilliant, 
according  to  Herodian,  partly  from  its  natural  whiteness, 
partly  from  the  quantity  of  essences  and  gold  dust  with  which 

*  Facciolati. 


T  BRAbiEV  sr. 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


567 


It  was  loaded,  that  when  the  sun  was  shining  on  it  it  might 
have  been  thought  that  his  head  was  on  fire. 

The  annexed  steel  plate,  which  represents  a  portion  of  one 
of  the  walls  of  the  Pantheon,  will  at  once  depict  the  female 
dress  on  a  larger  scale,  and  convey  some  notion  of  the  light 
and  airy  style  of  architectural  painting,  intermixed  with 
figures,  which  is  one  of  the  favourite  decorations  of  Pompeii. 
It  represents  a  priestess  playing  on  the  harp,  which  she 
strikes  with  both  hands,  using  with  the  right  the  plectrum, 
or  quill.  She  is  clothed  in  a  white  pallium,  fringed  with 
gold,  which  falls  in  rich  folds  below  the  knees.  Her  under 
garment  is  a  blue  tunic ;  she  has  yellow  shoes,  a  gold  band 
confines  her  hair,  and  gold  earrings  and  bracelets  glitter  on 
her  ears  and  wrists.  She  is  coming  through  a  doorway,  upon 
the  architrave  of  which  is  a  figure  of  Victory  in  a  biga,  lash- 
ing on  her  horses,  which  are  full  of  animation.  These 
figures  are  painted  on  a  white  ground,  and  produce  an  ad- 
mirable effect. 


Some  minute  speculations  relative  to  one  article  in  female 
dress  have  been  based  on  a  statue  from  Herculaneum,  in 
which  a  Neapolitan  antiquary  thinks  that  he  has  discovered 
the  nature  and  construction  of  that  compound  garment  called 


Figure  dressed  in  the  Tunico-pallium. 


568 


POMPEII. 


the  tunico-pallium,  in  wliicli  the  appearance  and  uses  of  the 
tunic  and  mantle  were  united.  It  is  the  statue  of  a  woman 
employed  in  buckling  her  dress  over  the  right  shoulder, 
having  already  fastened  it  on  the  left,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
leave  the  arm  bare.  This  dress  he  asserts  to  be  the  tunico- 
pallium,  and  gives  the  following  description  of  it,  which  is 
stated  to  be  the  result  of  much  study  and  numerous  experi- 
ments, assisted  by  the  learning  of  several  members  of  the 
Academy  of  Naples. 

The  first  and  most  important  point  is  to  establish  that 
the  double  garment  in  question  was  composed  only  of  one 
piece  of  cloth.  This  the  author  assumes  to  be  four  feet  long 
and  five  feet  six  inches  broad,  varying  in  size  of  course  with 
the  stature  of  the  wearer.  Let  this  be  represented  by 
A  B  C  D.    Fold  down  the  upper  portion,  one  foot  two 


Tunico-pallium  displayed. 


inches  deep,  in  the  line  E  F,  and  the  edge  A  B  will  coincide 
with  G  H,  and  E  F  H  G  will  form  the  pallium  or  mantle. 
Join  the  edges  E  D,  F  C  by  folding  the  dress  in  the  line 
I  K  L,  leaving  the  fold  E  F  H  G  on  the  outside ;  divide  the 
top  into  three  equal  parts,  and  attach  the  back  and  front 
together  by  buckles  placed  at  the  points  M  N,  and  we  have 
the  tunico-pallium  open  at  the  right  side. 

Having  described  the  dress,  the  next  thing  is  to  place  it 
on  the  wearer.  Let  her  stand  in  the  centre  of  the  parallelo- 
gram e  i  I  d ;  fix  a  fibula,  or  buckle  at  the  point  N,  passing 
the  left  arm  through  the  aperture;  N  I,  and  adjusting  the 
buckle  on  the  left  shoulder  ;  then  place  the  second  buckle  at 
M,  on  the  right  shoulder,  passing  the  head  through  N  M, 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


569 


and  tlie  riglit  arm  through  the  aperture  M  E.  The  corners, 
E  G,  I  K,  will  of  course  fall  down  in  the  direction  indicated 
by  the  dotted  lines,  forming  a  simple,  but  not  inelegant 
drapery.  In  some  figures  the  tunico-pallium  is  entirely  open 
on  the  right  side,  E  D ;  in  others  it  is  entirely  closed  from 


end  to  end,  or  open  only  for  the  space  E  G.  This  dress  has 
been  introduced  in  the  ballets  at  the  Neapolitan  theatre  San 
Carlo  with  very  good  effect. 

At  this  place  two  subjects  taken  from  paintings  may  be 
introduced,  representing  tvv^o  different  ways  of  playing  on  the 
harp.    Each  is  curious,  as  exemplifying  a  method  of  playing 


570  POMPEII. 

which  no  modern  nation  has  adopted.  The  first  represents 
a  female  striking  two  harps  at  once,  one  held  on  her  knee, 
the  other  placed  beside  her  on  a  couch.  The  curved  figure 
of  both  is  remarkable,  and  may  perhaps  give  a  new  and 


Harp-player  using  the  Plectrum. 


more  forcible  meaning  to  the  epithet  curva,  in  the  lines  of 
Horace : — 

Tu  curva  recines  lyra 

Latonam  et  celeiis  spicula  Cynthias. —  Od.  iii.  28. 

The  Eomans,  in  speaking  of  harp  music,  used  the  expres- 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS. 


571 


sion  "  intus  et  foris  canere,''^  to  sing  within  and  without ; 
and  this  expression  is  rendered  more  intelligible  by  the  cut 
from  a  painting  given  at  page  569,  from  which  it  appears 
that  sometimes,  at  all  events,  the  harp  had  a  double  row  of 
strings,  as  the  Welsh  harp  sometimes  has  three  strings. 
The  musician  here  plays  with  both  hands,  without  using  the 
plectrum,  and  the  surrounding  figures  seem  to  be  watching 
her  with  admiration. 

The  other  subject,  which  is  imperfect,  represents  a  female 
playing  with  the  plectrum  or  quill,|  with  which  the  chords 
were  struck,  instead  of  the  fingers.  This  method  of  playing 
was  held  in  early  times  in  the  highest  esteem  ;  afterwards  it 
was  superseded  by  the  use  of  the  fingers,  a  far  more  natural 
and  effective  instrument.  Here  the  musician  strikes  with 
both  hands  at  once,  with  the  right,  intus^  or  the  inner  row  of 
strings,  with  the  plectrum ;  with  the  left,  foris.  The  harp  is 
supported  by  a  band  passed  round  the  left  arm. 

Numerous  articles  of  female  ornament  have  been  found,  of 
which  we  have  collected  a  few  into  one  block.  They  are 
drawn  of  the  same  size  as  the  originals.  The  first  figure  is 
an  earring,  seen  in  front  and  sideways.  It  is  a  portion  of  a 
plain  gold  spheroid,  very  thick,  with  a  metal  hook  at  the 


Ear-ring. 


back  to  pass  through  the  ear.  The  next  is  of  simpler  con- 
struction, having  pearl  pendants.  Both  these  patterns  seem 
to  have  been  very  common.  No.  3  is  a  breast-pin,  attached 
to  a  Bacchanalian  figure,  with  a  patera  ^n  one  hand  and  a 
glass  in  the  other.  He  is  provided  with  bat's  wings,  and 
two  belts,  or  bands  of  grapes,  pass  across  his  body.  The 
bat's  wings  symbolize  the  drowsiness  consequent  upon  hard 

*  Cic.  in  Var.  Act.  ii.  lib.  1.  20. 

t  The  mandolin  is  played  to  this  day  in  Italy  with  a  quill. 


572 


POMPEII. 


drinking.  No.  4  is  a  ring,  witli  serpents'  lieads.  These  are 
very  common,    To  these  we  have  added  two  combs. 

We  conclude  with  two  of  the  most  important  articles  of  a 


lady's  toilet-table — her  mirrors  and  a  box  of  pins.  The 
former  were  made  -asually  of  steel,  but  sometimes  of  glass  : 
the  latter,  we  are  tojd  by  Pliny,  were  brought  from  Sidon.* 

XXX vi.  36. 


573 


ITINEEAEY. 

The  following  Itinerary  is  chiefly  intended  for  those  who 
can  devote  only  a  few  hours  to  a  visit  to  Pompeii,  and  wish  to 
see  the  principal  objects  in  the  speediest  and  most  striking 
manner.  Such  visitors  however  must  not  linger  on  the  way, 
and,  if  the  time  can  be  spared,  it  will  be  desirable  to  pay  the 
buried  city  at  least  a  second  visit,  when  the  principal  objects 
may  be  examined  more  at  leism^e,  and  a  few  others  may  be 
added  to  the  catalogue.  The  Itinerary  is  so  contrived  that 
the  public  buildings  will  be  first  visited,  and  then  the  private 
houses,  according  to  the  order  observed  in  this  work. 

There  are  two  ways  of  reaching  Pompeii  from  Naples  ; 
either  by  the  high  road  to  Salerno,  through  Portici,  Eesina, 
Torre  del  Greco,  and  Torre  Annunziata ;  or  by  the  railway, 
which  has  a  station  within  two  minutes'  walk  of  the  Porta 
della  Marina,  or  Sea  Gate,  now  the  principal  entrance  to  the 
city.  Whether  the  visitor  enters  Pompeii  by  this  gate  or  by 
that  of  Herculaneum  is  not  a  matter  of  much  importance. 
To  those  who  perform  the  journey  in  a  carriage  both  gates 
are  equally  convenient ;  but  for  the  traveller  by  railway  the 
Porta  della  Marina  is  much  preferable,  as  the  Gate  of  Her- 
culaneum lies  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  station. 
There  is  another  entrance  at  the  Porta  Stabiana,  but  this  will 
be  convenient  only  for  those  coming  from  the  south.  We 
have  selected  the  Sea  Gate  as  the  point  from  which  to  com- 
mence this  Itinerary  because  it  is  the  most  frequented  ;  and 
we  may  add  that  it  seems  most  natural  to  finish,  rather  than 
begin,  with  examining  the  tombs. 

From  this  gate  a  narrow  and  rather  steep  street  leads 
straight  to  the  Forum,  At  the  top  of  it,  just  before  entering 
the  Forum,  on  the  left-hand  side,  is  the  entrance  to  the  Temple 
of  Venus,  After  visiting  this  temple,  proceed  into  the  Forum, 
and  turning  to  the  left,  along  the  side  wall  of  the  temple, 
under  which  may  be  seen  the  standard  measures,  visit  the 
Public  Granary  and  adjoining  Prison,  These  buildings  occupy 
the  remaining  space  on  the  western  side  of  the  Forum,  towards 
the  north. 


57,4  . 


POMPEII. 


From  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Forum  the  Temple  of 
Jupiter  is  projected  into  its  area.  On  the  north-eastern  side 
of  the  temple  the  Forum  was  entered  by  a  Triumphal  Arch  at 
the  top  of  what  is  called  the  Street  of  the  Forum,  in  which 
street  is  the  temporary  museum  and  library.  Fronting  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  stands  the  building 
called  the  Pantheon,  or  Temple  of  Augustus,  Next  to  this,  the 
remaining  portion  of  the  eastern  side  of  the  Forum  is  filled 
by  public  buildings  in  the  following  order  towards  the  south 
— the  Senaculum,  the  Temple  of  Mercury,  and  the  Edifice  of 
Eumachia,  called  Chalcidicum.  The  south  side  of  the  Forum 
is  faced  by  three  buildings  called  Curice,  of  which  the  middle 
one  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  Treasury,  At  the  south-east 
extremity  of  the  Forum,  adjoining  the  southern  side  of  the 
street  by  which  we  entered  it,  stands  the  Basilica.  These  com- 
prise all  the  public  buildings  about  the  Forum.  In  the  area 
of  the  Forum  will  be  observed  several  pedestals  for  statues. 
Facing  the  southern  side  of  the  Basilica  stand  the  Houses  of 
Ghampionnet, 

Crossing  from  the  Basilica  to  the  opposite,  or  eastern  side 
of  the  Forum,  we  enter  a  street  called  the  Strada  dell'  Ahhon- 
danza,  or  dei  Mercanti,  A  little  way  down,  on  the  right-hand 
side,  facing  the  south-eastern  angle  of  the  Chalcidicum,  is  the 
house  of  the  Cinghiale,  or  Wild  Boar,  Proceeding  eastwards, 
the  third  street  on  the  right,  called  Strada  dei  Teatri,  leads 
down  to  the  theatres.  At  the  bottom  of  this  street  we  enter, 
through  a  sort  of  Propylseum,  what  is  called  the  Triangular 
Forum,  Towards  the  extremity  of  it  are  the  remains  of  a 
Greek  Temple,  called  the  Temple  of  Hercules,  and  its  appurte- 
nances. At  the  south-west  extremity  of  the  Forum  is  the 
House  o  f  Joseph  II.  On  the  eastern  side  is  a  long  wall,  in 
which  there  are  several  entrances  into  the  Great  Theatre.  At 
the  southern  side  of  this  theatre  is  the  large  quadrangular 
area  called  the  Quarters  of  the  Soldiers,  or  of  the  Gladiators, 
Adjoining  the  eastern  side  of  the  scene  of  the  Great  Theatre  is 
the  Small  Theatre,  or  Odeum,  This  is  flanked  on  the  east  by 
the  Street  of  Stabise,  leading  to  the  Porta  Stabiana,  the  remains 
of  which  may  be  seen.  Eeascending  the  Strada  Stabiana 
towards  the  north,  we  find  at  the  angle  of  the  first  street  on 
the  left,  called  the  Street  of  Isis,  the  little  Temple  of  JEsculapius, 
Close  to  it,  on  the  left,  may  be  seen  through  an  aperture  in 


ITINERARY. 


575 


the  arch  the  aqueduct  from  the  Sarno  to  Torre  Annunziata. 
The  Street  of  Isis  brings  us  to  the  Temple  of  Isis,  on  the  left, 
or  south  side  of  the  street,  and  just  beyond  it  to  the  Curia 
Isiaca,  which  communicates  with  the  northern  end  of  the 
Triangular  Forum.  Opposite  the  Temple  of  Isis  is  the 
recently  excavated  House  of  Cornelius  Bufus,  the  proper 
entrance  to  which  however  is  in  the  Street  of  Holconius. 
A  little  further  on,  at  the  angle  formed  by  the  Street  of  the 
Theatres  and  the  Street  of  Holconius,  is  the  house  marked 
No.  4,  sometimes  called  the  House  of  Holconius,  remarkable 
for  the  number  and  good  preservation  of  the  pictm^es  still  to 
be  seen  in  it. 

We  now  return  again  into  the  Street  of  Stabiae,  from  which 
we  have  diverged.  It  is  from  this  point  that  the  tourist,  if 
so  inclined,  should  proceed  to  the  Amphitheatre  ;  but  as  it  lies 
at  a  considerable  distance,  and  presents  nothing  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  numerous  other  buildings  of  the  same  kind  which 
may  be  seen  in  various  places,  the  visitor,  if  pressed  for  time, 
will  probably  do  best  to  pass  it  over. 

Proceeding  northwards  along  the  Strada  Stabiana,  we  find, 
at  the  angle  which  it  makes  on  the  north  with  the  Street  of 
Abundance,  the  more  recently  discovered  baths,  called  the 
lliermoi  Stahiance. 

In  the  little  street  behind  the  baths,  called  Via  del  Lupanare, 
and  in  the  lane  leading  into  it,  called  Vicoletto  del  Balcone 
Pensile,  may  be  seen  the  House  with  the  Restored  Balcony,  the 
Lupanar,  and  the  House  of  Siricus,  or  Salce  Lucrum.  Opposite 
the  last  is  the  caupona,  or  tavern,  on  the  outside  wall  of  which 
are  painted  two  large  serpents,  and  the  inscription — Otiosis 
locus  hie  non  est,  discede  morator. 

Eeturning  into  the  Street  of  Stabiae,  and  proceeding  towards 
the  north,  the  tourist  may  visit  on  the  right-hand  side  the 
House  of  Marcus  Lucretius,  Hence  proceeding  to  the  point 
where  the  Street  of  Stabiae  is  cut  by  the  Street  of  Fortune,  he 
may,  if  he  has  time,  turn  to  the  right  and  proceed  straight  to 
the  Gate  of  Nola ;  but  if  his  time  is  limited  he  will  do  better 
to  turn  to  the  left,  and  proceed  towards  the  w^est  along  the 
Street  of  Fortune.  Here  he  will  see  on  the  right,  opposite 
the  Yico  Storto,  the  Casa  degli  Scienziati.  On  the  left-hand 
side  of  the  Street  of  the  Augustals,  adjoining  the  Yico  Storto, 
is  the  House  of  the  Chace  ;  next  to  this  the  House  of  Ariadne, 


576 


POMPEII. 


which  runs  back  to  the  Street  of  the  xlugustals,  on  which 
side  indeed  is  the  principal  and  proper  entrance.  At  the 
extremity  of  the  Street  of  the  Aiigustals,  near  its  junction 
with  that  of  Stabiae,  are  the  Houses  of  the  New  Fountain,  the 
BaJcer,  and  the  Trident,  Eeturning  into  the  Street  of  Fortune, 
the  following  buildings  may  be  successively  visited  on  its  left, 
or  southern  side  :  the  House  o  f  the  Grand  'Duke,  the  House  of 
the  Figured  Capitals,  the  House  of  the  Blach  Walls,  and  at  the 
angle  made  by  the  Street  of  Fortune  and  that  of  the  Forum, 
the  Temple  of  Fortune,  The  entrance  is  in  the  latter  street. 
Opposite  the  Temple  of  Fortune,  and  occupying  the  whole 
insula  which  extends  from  the  northern  side  of  the  Forum 
to  the  Strada  delle  Terme  (a  continuation  of  that  of  Fortune), 
are  the  old  Public  Baths. 

We  have  now  visited  all  the  principal  objects  lying  to  the 
south  of  the  line  foi-med  by  the  Street  of  the  Baths  and  that 
of  Fortune.  To  complete  our  inspection,  the  quadi-angular 
mass  of  excavations  lying  to  the  north  of  that  line  remains  to 
to  be  seen;  after  which,  leaving  the  city  by  the  Gate  of 
Herculaneum,  we  shall  take  a  survey  of  the  suburb  called 
Pagus  Augustus  Felix,  and  the  Street  of  the  Tombs. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  House  of  the  Scienziati. 
The  first  insula  to  the  west  of  it  need  not  detain  us,  but  the 
second  contains  one  of  the  most  remarkable  private  buildings 
in  Pompeii,  the  House  of  the  Faun.  The  next  insula  west- 
ward is  chiefly  noticeable  for  the  House  of  the  Anchor.  We 
now  cross  the  top  of  the  Street  of  Mercury,  the  entrance  to 
which  is  spanned  by  a  Triumphal  Arch,  on  which  stood  an 
equestrian  statue  of  Nero.  The  insula  bounded  on  the  east 
by  this  street  contains  four  houses — those  of  the  Tragic  Poet, 
the  Fullonica,  or  dyer's  house,  and  those  of  the  Great  and 
Little  Fountain.  The  next  insula  to  the  west  is  occupied  by  a 
single  house,  that  of  Pansa,  which  for  size  and  magnificence 
may  dispute  the  j)alm  with  that  of  the  Faun. 

Behind,  and  to  the  north  of  the  four  insula  just  described, 
lie  fom*  other  insula.  That  which  backs  to  the  House  of  the 
Faun  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  House  of  the  Labyrinth. 
The  next,  behind  that  in  which  is  the  House  of  the  Anchor, 
contains  three  noticeable  houses — those  of  Castor  and  Pollux, 
of  the  Centaur,  and  of  Meleager.  The  insula  behind  the 
FuUonica  has  the  House  of  Adonis  and  that  of  Apollo,  close  to 


ITINERARY. 


577 


the  city  walls.  The  insula  behind  the  House  of  Pansa  con- 
tains nothing  very  remarkable. 

We  will  now  return  southwards  down  the  street  skirted  on 
the  east  by  the  House  of  Pansa.  At  the  top  of  this  a  small 
transverse  street  runs  northwards  into  that  leading  to  the 
Gate  of  Herculaneum.  Just  past  their  junction,  on  the  left- 
tiand  side,  stands  the  House  of  Julius  Polyhius.  A  little  further, 
on  the  right,  is  the  house  called  the  Academy  of  Music,  and 
adjoining  it  the  Baker  s  Shop  and  Mills.  Next  comes  the  House 
of  Sallust  and  the  Public  Bakehouse,  which  seems  to  form  part 
of  it.  In  this  part  of  the  street  will  also  be  found  the  room 
containing  the  casts  of  the  four  bodies  found  near  the  Street 
of  Abundance. 

At  this  point  the  street  branches  to  the  right  and  left.  At 
the  point  of  separation  stands  a  Public  Fountain,  Taking  the 
street  on  the  left,  we  find  on  its  left  side  the  House  of  the  Fe- 
male Dancers,  Just  beyond,  on  the  right,  is  a  Soajp  Shop,  and 
next  to  it  the  Doganu,  or  custom-house.  These  again  are 
followed  by  the  House  of  the  Surgeon  and  that  of  the  Vestals. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  street,  opposite  the  sui'geon's  house, 
is  the  House  ivith  Three  Floors,  and  beyond  this  again,  close  to 
the  city  gate,  the  Shop  of  Albino, 

Before  going  out  by  the  Porta  Ercolanese,  we  may  observe 
on  the  right,  or  eastern  side,  the  steps  for  ascending  the  city 
walls.  Outside  the  gate,  on  the  left,  are  one  or  two  tombs, 
and  beyond  a  circular  seat,  or  exedra,  behind  which  is  the 
Sepulchre  of  Mammia,  On  the  right-hand  side  of  the  way, 
proceeding  from  the  gate,  are  an  unfinished  sepulchre,  then  the 
Tomb  of  Terentius,  just  opposite  to  the  exedra,  and  close  to  it, 
a  Sculptors  Shop,  Next  come,  on  the  same  side,  the  Tomb  of 
the  Garlands,  and  beyond  it  2i public  seat,  or  resting-place.  The 
remaining  objects  on  this  side  of  the  way  are  a  long  building 
commonly  called  the  Country  Inn ;  before  the  northern  end 
of  this,  the  Tomb  with  the  Marble  Door ;  and  beyond,  the 
Sepulchre  of  Lucius  Libella  and  that  of  the  Arrian  Family, 

The  other,  or  western  side  of  the  way,  is  occupied  for  a 
considerable  space  beyond  the  exedra  with  the  frontage  of  a 
large  mansion  called  the  Villa  of  Cicero,  Beyond  this,  facing 
the  inn,  is  an  incomplete  sepulchre;  then  come  five  more  tombs 
in  the  following  order — that  of  Scaitrus.  the  Bound  Tomb,  the 
Tomb  of  Calventius,  that  of  Ncevoleia  Tyche,  and  the  Triclinium 

2  p 


578 


POMPEII. 


Funehre.  The  visit  is  then  closed  by  inspecting  the  Hoicse 
of  Biomede,  the  last  structure  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the 
way. 


The  foUovHng  Synopsis  of  places  to  he  visited  will  help  to  render  the  preceding 
Itinerary  clearer.    The  figures  show  the  pages  where  they  are  described. 


PAGE 

PAGE 

.  354 

House  of  the  Cinghiale  . 

435 

 of  the  Faun  .... 

392 

 of  the  Figured  Capitals 

443 

,  527 

 of  the  Grand  Duke 

443 

.  319 

 of  the  Labyrinth  , 

396 

Exedra  and  Tomb  of  ^Jammia 

.  529 

 of  the  Scienziati  . 

301 

,  89 

 of  the  Surgeon 

348 

Gate  of  Herculaneam 

.  63 

 of  the  Vestals  .... 

o46 

Great  Theatre  .... 

.  204 

Houses  of  Championnet . 

440 

150 

 of  the  Fountains  . 

385 

House  of  Adonis. 

.  390 

471 

 of  Apollo  .... 

.  391 

Pantheon,  or  Temple  of  Augustus 

103 

 of  Ariadne 

.  443 

67 

 of  Castor  and  Pollux  , 

.  400 

Porta  Stabiana  

66 

 of  Cornelius  Rufus 

.  453 

100 

 of  Diomede 

.  480 

Public  Bakehouse  .... 

354 

 of  Female  Dancers 

.  350 

 Granary  

lOU 

 of  Holconius,  or  No.  4 

.  444 

 Seat  

527 

437 

Room  containing  plaster  casts  of 

 of  Julius  Polybius 

.  346 

477 

 of  Meleager 

.  421 

Round  Tomb     .    *.  ... 

523 

 of  M.  Lucretius  . 

.  455 

Senaculum 

110 

318 

Sepulchres  of  L.  Libella  and  of 

the  Arrian  Family 

513 

344 

 of  Three  Stories  . 

.  345 

Small  Theatre  

209 

 of  Tragic  Poet 

.  366 

350 

 of  the  Anchor. 

.  399 

Soldiers'  Quarters  .... 

145 

 of  the  Balcony 

.  473 

Standard  Measures  .... 

100 

 of  the  Black  Walls  . 

.  443 

Steps  for  Mounting  the  Wall 

59 

 of  the  Centaur 

.  418 

Temple  of  .Esculapius  . 

138 

— — -  of  the  Chace  . 

.  444 

 of  Curia  Isiaca 

144 

Temple  of  F oi  tune  . 

 of  Isis  . 

 of  Jupiter. 

 of  Mercury 

 of  Venus  . 

The  Basilica. 

The  Fullonica 

The  Old  Public  Baths 

Therni£e  Stabiana;  . 

The  Three  Curiae 


SYNOPSIS. 

579 

PAGE 

185 

The  Triclinium  Funebre 

515 

139 

Triangular  Forum  . 

150 

98 

Triumphal  Arch 

100 

U5 

Triumphal  Arch 

431 

127 

Tomb  of  Calveutius  , 

522 

124 

 of  Nsevoleia  Tyche 

.  518 

362 

 of  Scaurus 

.  525 

153 

 of  the  Garlands 

.  520 

174 

 with  the  Marble  Door 

.  513 

124 

Villa  of  Cicero  .... 

..  529 

THE  END. 


LONDON ; 

PRIXTED  BV  W  CLOWES  AKD  SONS.  STAMFORD  STREET. 
AXD  CHARIXG  CROSS. 


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